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Because the ossification process can differ so much from human to human, we have a wide range of potential bone numbers.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Cartilage: The flexible connective tissue that is turned to bone by osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts: Cells that control calcium and mineral deposition to turn cartilage into bone.
Sesamoids: Bones embedded in tendons or muscles.
Fabella: A large sesamoid bone occasionally found behind the knee joint.
Coccyx: The small set of semi-fused triangular bones at the end of the vertebral column.

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Director and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder



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References:

 

Goldberg I, Nathan H. (1987). Anatomy and pathology of the sesamoid bones. The hand compared to the foot. International Orthopaedics. 11(2):141-7. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3610408.

Vineet K. Sarin  Gregory M. Erickson  Nicholas J. Giori A. Gabrielle Bergman  Dennis R. Carter (2003). Coincident development of sesamoid bones and clues to their evolution. The Anatomical Record.5: 174-180. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0185%2819991015%29257%3A5%3C174%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-O.

Tao Sun, Lingxiang Wang, Haitao Zhao,Wenjuan Wu,and Wenhai Hu (2016). Prevalence, morphological variation and ossification of sesamoid bones of the forefoot: a retrospective radiographic study of 8,716 Chinese subjects. 2(3): 91–96. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6410651/.

Postacchini F, Massobrio M. (1983). Idiopathic coccygodynia: Analysis of fifty-one operative cases and a radiographic study of the normal coccyx. The Journal of bone and joint surgery. 65(8): 1116-1124. Retrieved from: https://www.coccyx.org/medabs/posta.htm.

Meals, Roy. (2019). Personal Communication. http://www.AboutBone.com

Direct download: ME_193_-_d4_720.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:13pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Fruit trees are unpredictable and grow slowly, and consumer tastes are fickle, so successful new varieties of fruit are rare.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:

grafting: joining together a cut branch with a cut root of the same species to produce a new individual

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: Peter Reich
Script Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) and Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)
Video Director: Ever Salazar and Alex Reich
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, and Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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References:

Hoying SA, AM DeMarree and MM Sazo. 2012. Successful Apple Grafting Techniques for New York. New York Fruit Quarterly 20 7-10.

Janick J. 2005. The origin of fruits, fruit growing, and fruit breeding. Plant Breeding Rev. 25:255-320.

Luby JJ and DS Bedford. 1992. Honeycrisp apple. Minnesota Report 225-1992 (AD-MR-5877-B)

Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 2019. Fruit Breeding. University of Minnesota website. http://arb.umn.edu/horticultural-research-center/fruit-breeding

Seetin M. 2018. 2018 U.S. Apple Crop Outlook and Overview. usapple.org 42 pages

Tadesse W et al. 2019. Genetic gains in wheat breeding and its role in feeding the world. Crop Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics 2019;1:e190005. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20190005

Yamamato T. 2016. Breeding, genetics and genomics of fruit trees. Breeding Science 66:1-2.

Direct download: Why_Its_HARD_To_Bring_A_New_Apple_To_Market.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 5:23pm EDT

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Experts can't agree on the definition of the term "concussion," which makes it difficult to diagnose, treat, and research this important brain injury. 

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a progressive degenerative disease of the brain found in people with a history of repetitive brain trauma (often athletes)
Traumatic brain injury (TBI): a disruption in the normal function of the brain that can be caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head, or penetrating head injury
Subdural hematoma: a collection of blood between the layers of tissue that surround the brain
Cerebral microbleeding: small chronic brain hemorrhages which are likely caused by structural abnormalities of the small vessels of the brain 

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Everything we know about concussions is wrong – https://qz.com/1136683/everything-we-know-about-concussions-is-wrong/

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Video Director, Narrator: Julián Gustavo Gómez (@ittakesii)

Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Arcadi Garcia Rius 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder



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References:


Rasmussen, Carly, et al. "How Dangerous Are Youth Sports for the Brain: A Review of the Evidence." Berkeley J. Ent. & Sports L. 7 (2018): 67. - https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&context=bjesl

Shen, Francis X. "Are youth sports concussion statutes working." Duq. L. Rev. 56 (2018): 7. - https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3172294

Sharp, David J., and Peter O. Jenkins. "Concussion is confusing us all." Practical neurology 15.3 (2015): 172-186. - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4453625/

Tator, Charles H. "Concussions and their consequences: current diagnosis, management and prevention." CMAJ 185.11 (2013): 975-979. - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3735746/

Whitelaw, A. S., and I. Young. "A case of perilymphatic fistula in blunt head injury." Emergency medicine journal 22.12 (2005): 921-921. - https://emj.bmj.com/content/22/12/921

Mason, Peggy. “Concussion Is a Counter-Productive Term: Let's Retire It.” The Brain Is Sooooo Cool!, 5 July 2015, https://thebrainissocool.com/2015/07/05/concussion-is-a-counter-productive-term-lets-retire-it/

Haller, Sven, et al. "Cerebral microbleeds: imaging and clinical significance." Radiology 287.1 (2018): 11-28. - https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiol.2018170803

Goldenbaum, Ellen. “Is It Really a Concussion? Symptoms Overlap with Neck Injuries, Making Diagnosis a Tough Call.” UB News Center, 29 July 2014, http://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2014/07/040.html

Direct download: ME_184_-_d4_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:31pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

We’re in the middle of a rapid, unprecedented, and world-changing increase in the intensity and scale of human activity on this planet.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

The Great Acceleration - the dramatic increase in human activity, largely since 1950, that is evident across a variety of socio-economic and biophysical measures, and that has made humans into a planetary scale force
The Anthropocene -  our current geological epoch (contested), beginning when humans first had significant impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems
Hockey stick graph - typically refers to the Mann et al 1999 graph of Earth’s temperature, but can also refer to any trend that's roughly constant for a long duration and then has a drastic upwards shift

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Welcome to the Anthropocene film - https://vimeo.com/39048998
Animated map of last 200,000 years of human population - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUwmA3Q0_OE
The history of emissions and the Great Acceleration - https://skepticalscience.com/EmmissionsAcceleration.html
The Hockey Stick Controversy - https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/05/the-hockey-stick-the-most-controversial-chart-in-science-explained/275753/
An argument for 'why growth can’t be green’ - https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/12/why-growth-cant-be-green/#
Can we stabilize Earth, or are we going to cross planetary thresholds? - www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1810141115 
An attainable global vision for conservation and human well-being - https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/TNC_AnAttainableGlobalVision_Frontiers.pdf

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Video Director and Illustrator: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)

With Contributions From: Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman, Arcadi Garcia

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

Image Credits: Hockey stick graph: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T_comp_61-90.pdf by Klaus Bittermann. Used with permission.
Copper graph based on: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_copper#/media/File:Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg
Life expectancy graph: https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy
CO2 graph: https://rateofchange.substack.com/p/the-rate-of-change-july-15-2019
Girl receiving oral polio vaccine: https://www.flickr.com/photos/cdcglobal/8190819087 No changes were made.

 

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References:

 

Barnosky, A. D., et al. 2014. Introducing the scientific consensus on maintaining humanity’s life support systems in the 21st century: Information for policy makers. The Anthropocene Review, 1(1), 78-109. http://bit.ly/34rguHz

IGPB. 2015. Great Acceleration. http://www.igbp.net/globalchange/greatacceleration.4.1b8ae20512db692f2a680001630.html Accessed Aug 2019.

Hellmann, J. Aug 2019. Personal communication.

Mann, M. E., et al. 1999. Northern hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Geophysical Research Letters, 26(6), 759-762. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999GL900070.

McNeill, J.R. Oct 2019. Personal communication.

McNeill, J. R. 2001. Something new under the sun: An environmental history of the twentieth-century world (the global century series). WW Norton & Company.

Roser, M. 2019. Life Expectancy. Our World In Data. https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy Accessed Sept 2019.

Phillipon, D. Aug 2019. Personal communication.

Polasky, S. Sept 2019. Personal communication.

Steffen, W. et al. 2015. The trajectory of the Anthropocene: the great acceleration. The Anthropocene Review, 2(1), 81-98. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2053019614564785

Thompson et al. 2009. Our plastic age. 364. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0054

Direct download: ME_191_-_d5_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:35pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

 

New technology has revolutionized how we study wild animals, but it has also bogged down scientists with data...luckily, there's an *intelligent* solution.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Deep learning: a subset of machine learning in artificial intelligence that can learning from data that is unstructured or unlabeled

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Take a look at the Snapshot Serengeti colletion and try your hand at classifying species, counting animals, and determining behaviors: https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/zooniverse/snapshot-serengeti

Learn about the whale shark project and report your sightings: https://www.whaleshark.org/

Explore underwater recordings of humpback whales and make your own discoveries: https://patternradio.withgoogle.com/

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Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor, Video Director and Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

Image Credits: All the photos of the savannah by the SnapshotSerengeti Project
https://snapshotserengeti.org

Sogod Bay Whale Shark video by Miguel Hilario
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=husPSPJv80o

 

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References:


Duporge I, Isupova O, and Reece S (2019, April 4) Using Satellite Imagery and Machine Learning to Detect and Monitor Elephants. https://blog.hexagongeospatial.com/using-satellite-imagery-and-machine-learning-to-detect-and-monitor-elephants/

Norouzzadeh MS, Nguyen A, Kosmala M, Swanson A, Palmer MS, Packer C, and Clune J (2018). Automatically identifying, counting, and describing wild animals in camera-trap images with deep learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115 (25): E5716-E5725. https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/37298550/6016780.pdf?sequence=1

Packer C, personal communication (2019, September 12).

Swanson AB, Kosmala M, Lintott CJ, Simpson RJ, Smith A, Packer C (2015) Snapshot Serengeti, high-frequency annotated camera trap images of 40 mammalian species in an African savanna. Scientific Data 2: 150026. https://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201526

Wildbook for Whale Sharks. https://www.whaleshark.org/

Direct download: ME_190_-_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:36pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

The way smartphones made many devices nonessential is a model for a new way to think about improving energy efficiency.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Dematerialization - using less (or no) material to deliver the same service
Energy conservation - using less energy by adjusting behavior (turning down your heat)
Energy efficiency - using less energy by using technology that requires less energy to perform the same function (insulating your house to keep warm while using less energy)
Energy intensity - energy consumption per unit of GDP (reduced by increasing energy efficiency)
Energy services - the useful functions you're able to perform by using energy (what we refer to as ‘function’)

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Phones are great for the environment https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-environment-consumption/
Nope, phones are bad for the environment https://theconversation.com/how-smartphones-are-heating-up-the-planet-92793
Amory Lovins on ‘integrative design’ (watch the video abstract) - https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aad965/meta
The US would use 85% more energy if it weren’t for efficiency efforts since the 1970s https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/energy-environment/308170-cheap-clean-and-easily-accessible-an-energy-resource
US energy intensity has halved since 1970 https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=10191
This chart shows just how much energy the US is wasting https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/05/visualizing-u-s-energy-consumption-in-one-chart

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Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6

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And download our videos on itunes:  https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)

Video Director: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:


Belkhir, L., & Elmeligi, A. 2018. Assessing ICT global emissions footprint: Trends to 2040 & recommendations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 177, 448-463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.239 

Bento, N. 2016. Calling for change? Innovation, diffusion, and the energy impacts of global mobile telephony. Energy Research & Social Science, 21, 84-100. https://repositorio.iscte-iul.pt/bitstream/10071/12732/5/Accepted_manuscript_Jun16.pdf 

Cullen, J. M., Allwood, J. M., & Borgstein, E. H. 2011. Reducing energy demand: what are the practical limits?. Environmental science & technology, 45(4), 1711-1718. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es102641n

Fell, M. J. 2017. Energy services: A conceptual review. Energy research & social science, 27, 129-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.02.010  

Grubler, A., et al. 2018. A low energy demand scenario for meeting the 1.5 C target and sustainable development goals without negative emission technologies. Nature Energy, 3(6), 515. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0172-6 

Lovins, A. B. 2018. How big is the energy efficiency resource?. Environmental Research Letters, 13(9), 090401. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aad965/meta 

Popovich, N. March 8, 2019. America’s Light Bulb Revolution. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/03/08/climate/light-bulb-efficiency.html 

Suckling, J., & Lee, J. 2015. Redefining scope: the true environmental impact of smartphones?. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 20(8), 1181-1196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0909-4 

Visitor’s Guide. August 2007. Rocky Mountain Institute. https://d231jw5ce53gcq.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Locations_LovinsHome_Visitors_Guide_2007.pdf 

Direct download: ME_187_-_d5_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 11:16am EDT

We ranked dragons based on how biologically and evolutionarily plausible they are.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Tetrapods: four-limbed (with a few exceptions, such as snakes which have vestigial limbs) animals constituting the superclass Tetrapoda.

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

What Happened to Smaug's Other Legs? 'Hobbit' FX Expert Explains http://www.mtv.com/news/1719502/smaug-hobbit-fx-explained/
How to fly your dragon, Journal of Physics Special topics https://journals.le.ac.uk/ojs1/index.php/pst/article/view/870/802

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Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6

And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes:  https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Narrator: Julián Gustavo Gómez (@ittakesii)

Video Illustrators: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) and Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)

Video Director: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman, Arcadi Garcia Rius 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
___________________________________________

References:


Tennekes, H. (2009). The simple science of flight: from insects to jumbo jets. MIT press.

Azuma, A., Azuma, S., Watanabe, I., & Furuta, T. (1985). Flight mechanics of a dragonfly. Journal of experimental biology, 116(1), 79-107.

Habib, M. (2013). Constraining the air giants: limits on size in flying animals as an example of constraint-based biomechanical theories of form. Biological Theory, 8(3), 245-252.

Direct download: ME_189_-_d3_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 2:13pm EDT

🌲🌲🌲 Go to https://teamtrees.org 🌲🌲🌲 Let's plant some trees! #TeamTrees

Trees can take an astounding amount of carbon out of the air, which is good, because we need to do that times a trillion.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.
___________________________________________
To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
carbon: element that makes up half of tree wood by weight
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Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________
Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexreich) and Peter Reich
Script Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) and Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)
Video Director: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman, Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Le Quéré, C et al. Global Carbon Budget 2018. Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 2141–2194, 2018

JF Bastin, JF et al.The global tree restoration potential. Science 365 (6448), 76-79

Pillsbury NH; ML Kirkley. 1984. Equations for total, wood, and saw-log volume for thirteen California hardwoods. Res. Note PNW-RN-414. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p

B. W. Griscom et al. 2017. Natural Climate Solutions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114, 11645–11650.

Roe S et al. 2019. Contributon of the land sector to a 1.5C world. Nature Climate Change (in press)

Direct download: How_Much_Air_Can_A_Tree_Hold_TeamTrees.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 4:50pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

 

Learning a new language as an adult is harder than doing so as a child because adults usually aren’t as invested and often use the wrong strategies.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Second-Language Acquisition: The process of a language that’s not the speaker’s native language.
Bilingualism: The ability to speak and understand two languages.
Monitor Model: A group of hypotheses that propose that linguistic competence is only advanced when language is subconsciously acquired.
Sociolinguistics: The study of language in relation to all sorts of social factors.
Linguistic Investment: A motivation to learn a language based on the understanding that the speaker will acquire a wider range of symbolic and material resources, which will in turn increase the value of their cultural capital and social power.
Hyperpolyglot: A person who can speak and understand more than six languages.

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Editor and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

___________________________________________

 

References:

 

Hartshorne, J., Tenenbaum, J., and Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition. 177: 263-277. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027718300994

Bigelow, M., and Tarone, E. (2004). The Role of Literacy Level in Second Language Acquisition: Doesn't Who We Study Determine What We Know? TESOL Quarterly. 38(4): 689-700. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588285?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Darvin, R. and Norton, B. (2015). Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 35: 36-56. Retrieved from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annual-review-of-applied-linguistics/article/identity-and-a-model-of-investment-in-applied-linguistics/91EE4C7572272B233A16286768E0E5B8.

Pierce, B. (2015). Social Identity, Investment, and Language Learning. TESOL Quarterly. 29(1): 9-31. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3587803?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

Derakshan, A. (2015). The Interference of First Language and Second Language Acquisition. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 5(10):2112-211. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283524046_The_Interference_of_First_Language_and_Second_Language_Acquisition.

Rao, P., and Knaus, E. (2008). Evolution of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs): Cyclooxygenase (COX) Inhibition and Beyond. Journal of Pharmaceutical Science. 11 (2): 81-110. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19203472.

Bigelow, M. (2019). Personal Communication. Department of Curriculum and Instruction. University of Minnesota.

Paesani, K. (2019). Personal Communication. The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition. University of Minnesota.

Direct download: ME_185_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 11:19am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

The same enzyme that used to save us is now killing us because the body reactions it catalyzes now cause more harm than good.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Cyclooxygenase: An enzyme responsible for the production of thromboxane and prostaglandins.
Thromboxane: A lipid that acts as a platelet aggregator.
Platelets: Special non-nucleic blood cells that clump together to cause blood clots.
Prostaglandins: A lipid that causes vasodilation and inflammation.
Aspirin: A form of acetylsalicylic acid that acts as an NSAID.
NSAIDs: Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs that inhibit COX, and thus inflammation and clotting.

___________________________________________

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Credits:

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Video Illustrators: Ever Salazar and Sarah Berman

Video Directors: David Goldenberg and Ever Salazar

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich and Julián Gómez

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Fitzpatrick, F. (2004). Cyclooxygenase Enzymes: Regulation and Function.Current Pharmaceutical Design. 10:577-588. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965321.

Dubois, R., Abramson, S., Crofford, L., Gupta, R., Simon, L., Van De Putte, L., Lipsky, P. (1998). Cyclooxygenase in biology and disease. The FASEB Journal 212(12):1063-73. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9737710.

Havird, J., Kocot, K., Brannock, P., Cannon, J., Waits, D., Weese, D., Santos, S., Halanych, K. (2015). Reconstruction of cyclooxygenase evolution in animals suggests variable, lineage-specific duplications, and homologs with low sequence identity. 80(3-4):193-208. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25758350.

Ricciotti, E. and FitzGerald, G. (2011).Prostaglandins and Inflammation. ATVB In Focs. 31(5): 986–1000. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3081099/.

Rao, P., and Knaus, E. (2008). Evolution of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs): Cyclooxygenase (COX) Inhibition and Beyond. Journal of Pharmaceutical Science. 11 (2): 81-110. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19203472.

Van't Hof, J., Duval, S., Misialek, J., Oldenburg, N., Jones, C., Eder, M., Luepker, R. (2019). Aspirin Use for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in an African American Population: Prevalence and Associations with Health Behavior Beliefs. Journal of Community Health. 44(3):561-568. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30895416.

Leupker, R. (2019). Personal Communication. Minnesota Heart Health Program. University of Minnesota.

Chipman, J. (2019). Personal Communication. DEpartment of Surgery. University of Minnesota.

Direct download: ME_182_-_d4_720.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 10:27am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

 

Because exercise isn't essential for short-term survival, we don't exercise enough, so we need to reincorporate purposeful physical activity into our lives.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Physical activity - any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a basal level
Exercise - a form of physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and performed (primarily) with the goal of improving health or fitness
Recommended levels of physical activity (USA) - 150 minutes moderate-intensity or 75 minutes vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or an equivalent combination, and muscle-strengthening activities at least 2 days / week
Evolutionary medicine - a field that uses evolutionary theory & data to better understand (the origins of) health & disease
Mismatch conditions - health conditions that are more prevalent or severe today than in the past because the body is inadequately or insufficiently adapted to modern environmental conditions (likely including: cavities, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis)

___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Forget Exercise. For Better Health, We Need Better Cities - https://qz.com/quartzy/1615436/the-solution-to-make-america-physically-active/
Magazine article about why exercise is hard - https://harvardmagazine.com/2016/09/born-to-rest
On an individual level, psychology is involved, too: https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/maybe-youd-exercise-more-if-it-didnt-feel-so-crappy/
Americans aren’t getting the message about exercising more & sitting less - https://time.com/5635730/exercise-sitting-data/
What healthy living and fixing climate change have in common - https://www.yaleclimateconnections.org/2019/05/planetary-health-and-12-years-to-act/
The wonder drug that's free - https://bit.ly/2lHAjsI
How to live to be 100+ (TED Talk) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ff40YiMmVkU

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Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)

Video Director: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

___________________________________________

 

References:


Booth, F. W., et al. 2017. Role of inactivity in chronic diseases: evolutionary insight and pathophysiological mechanisms. Physiological reviews, 97(4), 1351-1402. https://bit.ly/2kEl4Ay

Ding, D., et al. 2016. The economic burden of physical inactivity: a global analysis of major non-communicable diseases. The Lancet, 388(10051), 1311-1324. https://bit.ly/2kfGVy8

Hoed, M. D., et al. 2013. Heritability of objectively assessed daily physical activity and sedentary behavior. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 98(5), 1317-1325. https://bit.ly/2lNxeHk

Lee, I. M., et al. 2012. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. The Lancet, 380(9838), 219-229. https://bit.ly/2ER2cT4

Lee, H. H., et al. 2016. The exercise–affect–adherence pathway: an evolutionary perspective. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 1285. https://bit.ly/2maYy2E

Lewis, B. A., personal communication. May 2019.

Lewis, B. A., et al. 2014. A randomized trial examining a physical activity intervention for the prevention of postpartum depression: the healthy mom trial. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 7(1), 42-49. https://bit.ly/2m9Xa0e

Lieberman, D. E. 2015. Is exercise really medicine? An evolutionary perspective. Current sports medicine reports, 14(4), 313-319. https://bit.ly/2xuQtFU

Rhodes, R. E., et al. 2018. Theories of physical activity behaviour change: A history and synthesis of approaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. https://bit.ly/2kaPBpk

US Department of Health & Human Services. 2018. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition. Washington, DC. https://bit.ly/2Q1eF09

US Department of Health & Human Services. 2018. 2018 Physical activity guidelines advisory committee scientific report. Washington, DC. https://bit.ly/2FmVa9p

WHO. 2019. Prevalence of insufficient physical activity. Accessed May 2019. https://bit.ly/2TLLSuw

Direct download: ME_183_-_d6_720po.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 11:49am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

 

Ditches and drain pipes help crops survive but can negatively impact the broader landscape.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

__________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Waterlog - to saturate (a field) with water; a problem for most crops
Drainage - the removal of liquid (water) from an area
Ditch - a narrow channel dug in the ground, typically used for drainage alongside a road or the edge of a field
Drain tile - a pipe buried (beneath a field) for drainage. Originally made of ceramic tiles, now typically of corrugated plastic
Precision agriculture - putting corn seed + small dose of fertilizer/pesticides in hole in ground
Controlled drainage - the use of a water control structure to raise the depth of a drain tile outlet to hold water in the field when drainage isn't needed
Wood chip bioreactor - an underground trench filled with wood chips that provide carbon for bacteria that denitrify the water flowing through it
Saturated buffer - a strip on the edge of a field filled with plants & bacteria that can remove some nitrogen from the water flowing onto it from drain tiles
Denitrification - the removal of nitrogen from a substance (soil, air, or water) by chemical reduction, typically via bacteria
Wetland - an area of land where water covers the soil year-round or at certain times of year
Ecosystem services - the free benefits humans get from natural ecosystems

________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Why plant roots need oxygen: https://bit.ly/2kgD0Be
Restored wetlands don’t recover their original ecosystem functions: https://bit.ly/2VrccKK
A guide to agricultural drainage: https://bit.ly/2jX1ChZ

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Script Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Video Illustrator and Director: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman, Arcadi Garcia Rius 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

Image Credits: Aerial view of treatment wetlands - Photo by David Hansen

 

________________________________________

 

References:

 

Christianson, L.E. & Helmers, M.J., 2011. Woodchip Bioreactors for Nitrate in Agricultural Drainage. Agriculture and Environment Extension Publications. 85. https://bit.ly/2kdXPx7

Davidson, N. C. 2014. How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area. Marine and Freshwater Research, 65(10), 934-941. https://bit.ly/2lwLUKW

Davidson, N. C., Fluet-Chouinard, E., & Finlayson, C. M. 2018. Global extent and distribution of wetlands: trends and issues. Marine and Freshwater Research, 69(4), 620-627. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF17019

Discovery Farms MN. November 2016. Controlling Nutrient Loss in Tile Systems. https://bit.ly/2lTi8QI

Dolph, C. Pers. comm. June 2019

Erb, K. H., et al. 2017. Land management: data availability and process understanding for global change studies. Global change biology, 23(2), 512-533. https://bit.ly/2kgs7zn

Feick, S., Siebert, S., & Döll, P. 2005. A digital global map of artificially drained agricultural areas. https://bit.ly/2ksM3if

Finlay, J. Pers. comm. June 2019

Foufoula‐Georgiou, E., et al. 2015. The change of nature and the nature of change in agricultural landscapes: Hydrologic regime shifts modulate ecological transitions. Water Resources Research, 51(8), 6649-6671. https://bit.ly/2lu6Su7

Hansen, A. T., Dolph, C. L., Foufoula-Georgiou, E., & Finlay, J. C. 2018. Contribution of wetlands to nitrate removal at the watershed scale. Nature Geoscience, 11(2), 127. https://bit.ly/2lQe9nY

IPBES. 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. S. Díaz, et al. (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Pg 11-12. https://bit.ly/2WX4c4U

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. https://bit.ly/2QYNd0v

Mustroph, A. 2018. Improving flooding tolerance of crop plants. Agronomy, 8(9), 160. https://bit.ly/2k1jzfu

UN FAO. Water uses. Accessed June 2019. https://bit.ly/1yOPz3f

US EPA. Why are Wetlands Important? Accessed June 2019. https://bit.ly/2gA3KoZ

Direct download: ME_178_-_d5_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 9:47am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

 

The decisions we make while we browse the internet are suprisingly similar to the ones animals make as they forage for food...here's why.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Optimality models: tools used to evaluate the costs and benefits of different organismal features, traits, and characteristics, including behavior, in the natural world.
Optimal foraging theory: a behavioral ecology model that helps predict how an animal behaves when searching for food.
Marginal value theorem: an optimality model that describes the strategy that maximizes gain per unit time in systems where resources, and thus rate of returns, decrease with time.
Central place foraging: a model for analyzing how an organism traveling from a home base to a distant foraging location can maximize foraging rates.

___________________________________________

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___________________________________________

 

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Narrator, & Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia Rius

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

___________________________________________

 

References:

 

Chi, EH, Pirolli, P, and Pitkow, J. (2000) The scent of a site: A system for analyzing and predicting information scent, usage, and usability of a web site. In: ACM CHI 2000 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.42.7499&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Fu, W and Pirolli, P. (2007) SNIF-ACT: a cognitive model of user navigation on the world wide web. Human-Computer Interactions 22(4), 355-412. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0d96/d03cf822ea1584b468389b3f4bc39164d85f.pdf

Hayden, BY (2018) Economic choice: The foraging perspective. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 24: 1–6. https://experts.umn.edu/en/publications/economic-choice-the-foraging-perspective

Hayden, BY, Pearson, JM, and Platt, ML. (2011) Neuronal basis of sequential foraging decisions in a patchy environment. Nature Neuroscience 14: 933-939 https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.2856

Hall-McMaster, S and Luyckx F. (2019) Revisiting foraging approaches in neuroscience. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience 19 (2): 225-230. https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13415-018-00682-z

Pyke, G and Stephens, DW. (2019) Optimal foraging theory: application and inspiration in human endeavors outside biology. In JC Choe (ed.), Encyclopedia of animal behavior . 2nd edn, vol. 2, Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam, pp. 217-222. https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/optimal-foraging-theory-application-and-inspiration-in-human-ende

Van Koppen, PJ and Jansen, RWJ. (1998) The road to robbery: Travel patterns in commercial robberies . British Journal of Criminology 38: 230-246. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Koppen/publication/270802169_The_road_to_the_robbery_Travel_patterns_in_commercial_robberies/links/569e080008ae950bd7a81fc2/The-road-to-the-robbery-Travel-patterns-in-commercial-robberies.pdf

Direct download: ME_181_-_d3_720p_vlc.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 10:25am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Observing the effects of microbes using satellites can give us all sorts of useful information about life on Earth ... and other planets too.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

And thanks to researchers from the University of Wisconsin and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln who help generate airborne data used in Professor Jeannine Cavender-Bares' studies. ___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:

Microbe - an organism (such as a bacterium or protozoan) of microscopic or ultramicroscopic size.

Remote sensing - the scanning of the earth , especially by satellite or high-flying aircraft, in order to obtain information about it.

Pathogen - a bacterium, virus, or other microbe that can cause disease.

Chlorophyll - a green pigment, present in all green plants and in cyanobacteria, responsible for the absorption of light to provide energy for photosynthesis.

Phytoplankton - photosynthesizing microscopic biotic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth.

Cholera - an infectious and often fatal bacterial disease of the small intestine, typically contracted from infected water supplies and causing severe vomiting and diarrhea.

Evaporite - a natural salt or mineral deposit left after the evaporation of a body of water.

Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) - primary sedimentary structures formed by the interaction of microbes with sediment and physical agents of erosion, deposition, and transportation. ___________________________________________

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And download our videos on iTunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n ___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: Julián Gómez (@ittakesii)

Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius)

Video Director: Julián Gómez, David Goldenberg

Video Narrator: Julián Gómez

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder ___________________________________________

References:

Mirik M, Jones DC, Price JA, Workneh F, Ansley RJ, Rush CM. Satellite remote sensing of wheat infected by wheat streak mosaic virus. Plant Disease. 2011 Jan;95(1):4-12.

Lowe A, Harrison N, French AP. Hyperspectral image analysis techniques for the detection and classification of the early onset of plant disease and stress. Plant methods. 2017 Dec;13(1):80.

Lobitz B, Beck L, Huq A, Wood B, Fuchs G, Faruque AS, Colwell R. Climate and infectious disease: use of remote sensing for detection of Vibrio cholerae by indirect measurement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2000 Feb 15;97(4):1438-43.

de Magny GC, Mozumder PK, Grim CJ, Hasan NA, Naser MN, Alam M, Sack RB, Huq A, Colwell RR. Role of zooplankton diversity in Vibrio cholerae population dynamics and in the incidence of cholera in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.. 2011 Sep 1;77(17):6125-32.

Colwell RR. Global climate and infectious disease: the cholera paradigm. Science. 1996 Dec 20;274(5295):2025-31.

Lausch A, Erasmi S, King D, Magdon P, Heurich M. Understanding forest health with remote sensing-part II—a review of approaches and data models. Remote Sensing. 2017 Feb 5;9(2):129.

Meng J, Li S, Wang W, Liu Q, Xie S, Ma W. Mapping forest health using spectral and textural information extracted from spot-5 satellite images. Remote Sensing. 2016 Aug 31;8(9):719.

Baldridge AM, Farmer JD, Moersch JE. Mars remote‐sensing analog studies in the Badwater Basin, Death Valley, California. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 2004 Dec;109(E12).

Barbieri R, Stivaletta N. Continental evaporites and the search for evidence of life on Mars. Geological Journal. 2011 Nov;46(6):513-24.

Crowley JK, Hook SJ. Mapping playa evaporite minerals and associated sediments in Death Valley, California, with multispectral thermal infrared images. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 1996 Jan 10;101(B1):643-60.

Noffke N. Ancient sedimentary structures in the [less than] 3.7 Ga Gillespie Lake Member, Mars, that resemble macroscopic morphology, spatial associations, and temporal succession in terrestrial microbialites. Astrobiology. 2015 Feb 1;15(2):169-92.

Landis GA. Searching for life: the case for Halobacteria on Mars. InAIP Conference Proceedings 2001 Feb 2 (Vol. 552, No. 1, pp. 25-28). AIP.

Direct download: ME_180_-_d6-converted.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 11:03am EDT

Aquatic cyanobacteria first oxygenated earth’s air, making human life possible; now, due to our actions, cyanobacteria are madly blooming once more, poisoning our coasts in the process

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

 

___________________________________________

 

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Cyanobacteria: aquatic photosynthesizing bacteria often erroneously call blue-green algae
Blue-green algae: incorrect name often used for cyanobacteria because they are blue-green in appearance and can be confused with algae   
Dead zone: coastal area where cyanobacteria blooms lead to anaerobic conditions, killing fish and other organisms
Mycrosystins: a class of toxic compounds released by certain cyanobacteria

___________________________________________


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___________________________________________

 

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: Peter Reich

Script Editor: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)

Video Director: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Video Narrator: Julián Gómez (@ittakesii)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia Rius 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder


___________________________________________

 

References:

 

Bargu S et al.  Mississippi River diversions and phytoplankton dynamics in deltaic Gulf of Mexico estuaries: A review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 221:39-52 (2019).

Berman-Frank I, Lundgren P, Falkowski P. Nitrogen fixation and photosynthetic oxygen evolution in cyanobacteria. Research in Microbiology 154, 157–164 (2003)

Carey CC et al. Eco-physiological adaptations that favour freshwater cyanobacteria in a changing climate. Water Research  46, 1394-1407 (2012)

Garcia AK et al.  Reconstructed ancestral enzymes suggest long-term cooling of Earth’s photic zone since the Archean. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:4619-4624 (2017)

Glass JB, Wolfe-Simon F, Anbar AD.  Coevolution of metal availability and nitrogen assimilation in cyanobacteria and algae. Geobiology 7, 100-123 (2009).

Lyons TW, CT Reinhard, NJ Planavsky. The rise of oxygen in Earth’s early ocean and atmosphere Nature 506, 307–315 (2014).

Planavsky NJ et al.  The evolution of the marine phosphate reservoir. Nature 467, 1088-1090 (2010)

Soo RM et al. On the origins of oxygenic photosynthesis and aerobic respiration in Cyanobacteria. Science 355, 1436–1440 (2017)

Tromas N et al. Characterising and predicting cyanobacterial blooms in an 8-year amplicon sequencing time course. ISME J 11:1746-1763 (2017)

Direct download: ME_179_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:17pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

The technology we use to keep cool is heating the world in a vicious feedback cycle, so we need to improve it and use it less.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with this keyword: 

Refrigerant - a substance used in air conditioners & refrigerators for its ability to change phases and transfer heat

___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

How AC changed the world: https://www.bbc.com/news/business-39735802
People use AC to make their homes feel like Africa: http://bit.ly/2Y9fOH3

_________________________________________

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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer & Video Narrator: Alex Reich

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia Rius

Video Director: Julián Gustavo Gómez

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:


European Commission. Climate-friendly alternatives to HFCs. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/f-gas/alternatives_en Accessed May 2019.

Gunawardena, K. R.,  et al. 2017. Utilising green and bluespace to mitigate urban heat island intensity. Science of the Total Environment, 584, 1040-1055. http://bit.ly/2GbBuHY

Graves, R. Pers. comm. May 2019.

International Energy Agency. 2017. Space cooling: More access, more comfort, less energy. https://www.iea.org

International Energy Agency. 2018. The Future of Cooling: Opportunities for energy- efficient air conditioning. https://www.iea.org/futureofcooling/

International Institute of Refrigeration. Nov 2017. The impact of the refrigeration sector on climate change. http://bit.ly/30A56Xh

Keeler, B. L., et al. 2019. Social-ecological and technological factors moderate the value of urban nature. Nature Sustainability, 2(1), 29. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0202-1

Ministry of the Environment, Japan. 2016. Recovery, Recycling & Destruction of CFC, HCFC, & HFC. https://www.env.go.jp/en/earth/ozone/leaf2016/04.pdf

Pakbaznia, E., & Pedram, M. 2009. Minimizing data center cooling and server power costs. In Proceedings of the 2009 ACM/IEEE international symposium on Low power electronics and design (pp. 145-150). http://bit.ly/2JDL5bN

Reardon, C. & Clarke, R. 2013. Passive cooling. Australian Government: Your Home. http://bit.ly/2LNMmj7

Sachar, S., et al. 2018. Solving the Global Cooling Challenge: How to Counter the Climate Threat from Room Air Conditioners. Rocky Mountain Institute. www.rmi.org/insight/solving_the_global_cooling_challenge

Sadineni, S. B., et al. 2011. Passive building energy savings: A review of building envelope components. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 15(8), 3617-3631. http://bit.ly/2G9uGec

Sivak, M. 2013. Air conditioning versus heating: climate control is more energy demanding in Minneapolis than in Miami. ERL, 8(1), 014050. http://bit.ly/2SbyOix

Zhang, X., & Caldeira, K. 2015. Time scales and ratios of climate forcing due to thermal versus carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels. GRL, 42(11), 4548-4555. http://bit.ly/2LS8id0

Zhao, L., et al. 2015. Reduction of potential greenhouse gas emissions of room air-conditioner refrigerants: a life cycle carbon footprint analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production, 100, 262-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.063

Direct download: The_Cruel_Irony_Of_Air_Conditioning.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 11:41am EDT

Go to https://NordVPN.com/minuteearth to get 75% off a 3 year plan and use code MINUTEEARTH for an extra month for free. Protect yourself online today.
Basic research can seem wasteful, but it's actually a great economic investment.
Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.
___________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits:
Script Writer, Video Director, Narrator: Kate Yoshida
Video Illustrators: Sarah Berman & Ever Salazar
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Evoniuk, G, Kuhn, and C Schanberg, SM. (1979) The effect of tactile stimulation on serum growth hormone and tissue ornithine decarboxylase activity during maternal deprivation in rat pups. Communications in Psychopharmacology 3:363–370. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/548216

Field T, Diego M, and M Hernandez-Reif (2010) Preterm infant massage therapy research: a review. Infant Behavioral Development 33: 115-124. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2844909/

Jones, CI, and JC Williams (1998) Measuring the Social Return to R&D. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113(5): 1119-1135. https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/113/4/1119/1916988?redirectedFrom=fulltext

Press, WH. (2013) What's So Special about Science (And How Much Should We Spend on It?), Science 342: 817-822. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6160/817.full

Salter, AJ and BR Martin. (2001) The economic benefits of publicly funded basic research: a critical review. Research Policy 30:509-532. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048733300000913

Schanberg SM, Evoniuk G and CM Kuhn. (1984) Tactile and nutritional aspects of maternal care. specific regulators of neuroendocrine function and cellular development. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 175, 135–146. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3181/00379727-175-41779?journalCode=ebma

Direct download: Why_We_Should_Invest_In_Rat_Massage.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:40pm EDT

This video was made in partnership with the Swiss National Science Foundation. To see more videos about the importance of basic research, go to https://www.youtube.com/SNSFinfo
↓↓↓ Or watch the THREE OTHER VIDEOS we made with SNSF↓↓↓
What’s intelligent about artificial intelligence? - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xR6j9TLZdAw
Why kids skip school (& what to do about it) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q-MwcsyMk2k
Why you should abandon some of your dreams - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Qy8pBaugRY

Cancer has proven hard to beat, but a promising new type of treatment can use the disease's own powers against it.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Monoclonal antibodies: antibodies that are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell
Hybridoma: a hybrid cell used as the basis for the production of antibodies in large amounts for diagnostic or therapeutic use
___________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer, Video Director & Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

__________________________________________

References:

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. B Cells and Antibodies. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26884/

Ecker DM, Jones SD, Levine HL (2015). The therapeutic monoclonal antibody market. MAbs 7(1): 9-14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4622599/

Kohler, G. and Milstein, C. (1975) Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of predefined specificity. Nature 256: 495-497. https://www.nature.com/articles/256495a0

Direct download: How_to_Turn_Cancer_Against_Itself.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 10:29am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/
Morocco has 3/4 of the world’s known reserves of rock phosphate, our main source of phosphorus, so Morocco may be key to our long-term ability to grow food.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Phosphorus - a chemical element used in explosives, matches, and fertilizers (as it is a key nutrient for plant growth)
Phosphate rock - a sedimentary rock containing high amounts of phosphate minerals - the main source of agricultural P fertilizer
Phosphate - a salt or ester of phosphoric acid, containing PO4 -3 or a related anion or a group
4 Rs of Nutrient Management - Right fertilizer source, at the Right rate, at the Right time, and in the Right place
Reserve - the part of a resource that could be economically extracted or produced at the moment
Resource - a concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material in or on the Earth’s crust in such form and amount that economic extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or potentially feasible
___________________________________________
If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
Article about conflict in Western Sahara - http://bit.ly/2ZjYjQW
Radio about Phosphorus mines in Western Sahara - http://bit.ly/2IFv8kC
Magazine about 350th Anniv of Phosphorus Discovery - http://bit.ly/2wLw0i3
________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC
And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________
Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer & Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Jessika Raisor (@jessika_arts)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman, Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
___________________________________________
References:

Amundson, R., et al 2015. Soil and human security in the 21st century. Science, 348(6235), 1261071. http://bit.ly/2R0dRXe

Bailey, J. Pers. comm. Feb 2019

Chowdhury, R. B., et al. 2017. Key sustainability challenges for the global phosphorus resource, their implications for global food security, and options for mitigation. J. of Cleaner Prod., 140, 945-963. http://agri.ckcest.cn/ass/NK001-20170130004.pdf

CIA. The World Factbook. Country Comparison: Crude Oil - Proved Reserves. Accessed January 2019. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2244rank.html

Cooper, J., et al. 2011. The future distribution and production of global phosphate rock reserves. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 57, 78-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.09.009

Cordell, D., et al. 2009. The story of phosphorus: global food security and food for thought. Global env change, 19(2), 292-305. 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.10.009

Cordell, D., & White, S. 2014. Life's bottleneck: sustaining the world's phosphorus for a food secure future. Ann Rev of Env & Res, 39, 161-188. 10.1146/annurev-environ-010213-113300

Cordell, D., & White, S. 2015. Tracking phosphorus security: indicators of phosphorus vulnerability in the global food system. Food Sec, 7(2), 337-350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0442-0

Elser, J., & Bennett, E. 2011. Phosphorus cycle: a broken biogeochemical cycle. Nature, 478(7367), 29. http://bit.ly/2WvUark

Filippelli, G. M. 2011. Phosphate rock formation and marine phosphorus geochemistry: the deep time perspective. Chemosphere, 84(6), 759-766. http://bit.ly/2X0mTcf

MacDonald, G. K., et al. 2011. Agronomic phosphorus imbalances across the world's croplands. PNAS, 108(7), 3086-3091. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/108/7/3086.full.pdf

Peterson, H. Pers comm. Jan 2019

Rosen, C. Pers comm. Jan 2019

Sattari, S. Z., et al. 2012. Residual soil phosphorus as the missing piece in the global phosphorus crisis puzzle. PNAS, 109(16), 6348-6353. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/109/16/6348.full.pdf

Statista.com. Rare earth reserves worldwide by country 2018. Accessed January 2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/277268/rare-earth-reserves-by-country/

Tilman, D., et al. 2002. Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature, 418(6898), 671. http://bit.ly/2KCL3To

Direct download: This_Country_Has_Something_Everyone_Else_Wants.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 9:31am EDT

Try Dashlane Premium free for 30 days here: https://www.dashlane.com/MinuteEarth. And use the coupon code ‘MinuteEarth’ to get 10% off a yearly membership.
Humans can hold our breath longer than we think by taking advantage of our body’s innate survival instincts - and then ignoring them.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Static Apnea: Holding your breath without swimming or moving.
Apneist: Someone who competes in apnea-related contests.
Fight or Flight Response: A set of physiological responses to a perceived mortal threat.
Mammalian Dive Reflex: A set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes.
Diaphragm: A strip of skeletal muscles underneath the lungs that contracts and flattens when you inhale. It starts spasming as part of involuntary breathing movements when the body starts to run out of oxygen.
Spleen: An organ that primarily acts as a blood filter that can deflate to return blood to the circulatory system.
Carbon Dioxide Tension: The increase in CO2 pressure in the blood as oxygen levels fall.
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
Mike Boyd learns how to hold his breath for 4 minutes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6iyDEWG1CU
_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer & Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)
Video Directors: David Goldenberg & Julián Gómez (@ittakesii)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Arcadi Garcia Rius, Melissa Hayes
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder


___________________________________________

References:

Bain, A., Drvis, I., Dujic, Z., MacLeod, D., Ainslie, P. (2018). Physiology of static breath holding in elite apneists. Experimental Physiology. 103 (635-651). Retrieved from: https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/EP086269.

Hutchinson, A. (2018). Pushing the Limits of Extreme Breath-Holding. New Yorker. Retrieved from: https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/pushing-the-limits-of-extreme-breath-holding.

Panneton, W. M. (2013). The Mammalian Diving Response: An Enigmatic Reflex to Preserve Life? Physiology. 28(5): 284–297. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3768097/.


Petrović, Branko (2019). Personal Communication.

Schagatay E, van Kampen M, Emanuelsson S, Holm B. (2000). Effects of physical and apnea training on apneic time and the diving response in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 82(3) : 161-9. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10929209.

Schagatay, Erika (2019). Personal Communication. Center of Information Services and High Performance Computing. TU Dresden. Department of Health Sciences. Mid Sweden University

Direct download: The_Secrets_of_Extreme_Breath_Holding.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 10:15am EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! https://twin-cities.umn.edu/
Lyme disease is spreading like wildfire around the world: here's why.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/index.html
_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Peter Reich
Script Editor: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius)
Video Directors: David Goldenberg & Julián Gómez (@ittakesii)
Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Brunner, J. L., LoGiudice, K., & Ostfeld, R. S. 2008. Estimating reservoir competence of Borrelia burgdorferi hosts: prevalence and infectivity, sensitivity, and specificity. Journal of medical entomology, 45(1), 139-147. http://bit.ly/2ZmxIDP

Keesing, F., et al. 2009. Hosts as ecological traps for the vector of Lyme disease. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Bological Sciences, 276(1675), 3911-3919. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/do...

Kilpatrick, A. M. et al. 2017 Lyme disease ecology in a changing world: consensus, uncertainty and critical gaps for improving control. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 372: 20160117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0117

Magnaval, J. F., et al. 2016. A serological survey about zoonoses in the verkhoyansk area, northeastern siberia (sakha republic, Russian federation). Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 16(2), 103-109. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2015.1828

Ostfeld, R. S., et al. 2014. Life history and demographic drivers of reservoir competence for three tick-borne zoonotic pathogens. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.....

Ostfeld, R. S., Levi, T. , Keesing, F. , Oggenfuss, K. and Canham, C. D. (2018), Tick‐borne disease risk in a forest food web. Ecology, 99: 1562-1573. doi:10.1002/ecy.2386

Robinson, S. J., et al. 2015. Disease risk in a dynamic environment: the spread of tick-borne pathogens in Minnesota, USA. EcoHealth, 12(1), 152-163. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10393-0...

Scott, J. D. et al. 2017. Lyme disease Bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, detected in multiple tick species at Kenora, Ontario, Canada. J. Bact. Parasitol, 8. http://bit.ly/2ZjOXWd

Vandenesch, A., et al. 2014. Incidence and hospitalisation rates of Lyme borreliosis, France, 2004 to 2012. Eurosurveillance, 19(34), 20883. http://bit.ly/2Dn693Q

Wu, X. B., et al. 2013. Distribution of tick-borne diseases in China. Parasites & Vectors, 6(1), 119. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-6-119

Direct download: Why_Is_Lyme_Disease_Getting_Worse.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 10:49am EDT

We built the Tree of Life Explorer! Check it out: https://labs.minutelabs.io/Tree-of-Life-Explorer/
And watch this video to learn more about it: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3eE2fCLay-Q

With our current understanding of evolutionary history and our strategy of cladistic naming, if we wanted to have both goldfish and sharks under a single group called "fish", then mammals must also be called fish.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
- Phylogenetic tree: a branching diagram or "tree" showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species
- Cladogram: a diagram used in cladistics to show relations among organisms
- Monophyletic group (or clade): a group of organisms that consists of all the descendants of a common ancestor
- Paraphyletic group: all of the descendants of a common ancestor minus one or more monophyletic groups
- Similarity trap: people can name different species the same thing, only to find out they aren’t even closely related. We made a video about this phenomana: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flVK-rbeT4g
___________________________________________


Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits:
Script Writer: Jasper Palfree
Script Editor: David Goldenberg
Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman
Video Director: Ever Salazar
Video Narrator: Ever Salazar & Jasper Palfree
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
___________________________________________

References:

Weinstein, Bret (2016). On Being a Fish. Inference, Volume 2, Issue 3 September. https://inference-review.com/article/on-being-a-fish

Lahti, David (2016). An Ambivalent Amphibian (In response to "On Being a Fish"). Volume 2, Issue 4
December. https://inference-review.com/letter/an-ambivalent-amphibian

Podani, János (2013). Tree thinking, time and topology:
Comments on the interpretation of tree diagrams in
evolutionary/phylogenetic systematics. Cladistics Volume 29, Issue 3. May http://real.mtak.hu/9727/1/PodaniOnTreesFINAL.pdf

Direct download: You_Are_A_Fish.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 10:06am EDT

This video is in partnership with Bill and Melinda Gates. You can check out the Gates Annual Letter here: https://b-gat.es/2GxIwba

Concrete is responsible for 8% of humanity’s carbon emissions because making its key ingredient - cement - chemically releases CO2, and because we burn fossil fuels to make it happen.

Thanks to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:

Portland cement - the most common type of cement used worldwide, made with limestone
Limestone - a hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate (which is also in shells & eggs)
Cement - a powder used in construction that’s made by grinding clinker with other minerals and mixing with water to form a paste that sticks to sand, gravel or crushed stone to make concrete
Concrete - a building material made by mixing cement with water to form a paste that gains body through fillers like sand and gravel
Clinker - an intermediate marble-sized product in cement production created by sintering limestone with clay and other things
Sinter - to turn a powdery solid into a single mass by heating it without liquefaction
Mortar - another building material (used to adhere bricks or stones together) made by mixing cement with water and sand
Calcination - the process of heating a substance to a high temperature, but below its melting point, so it thermally decomposes (like limestone into lime & CO2)
Process emissions - the name for the CO2 that comes from limestone when it thermally decomposes

___________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

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And download our videos on itunes:  https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer & Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Video Illustrator: Adam Thompson

Video Director: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Arcadi Garcia Rius

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Andrew, R. M. 2018. Global CO2 emissions from cement production. Earth System Science Data, 10(1), 195. https://www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/10/195/2018/essd-10-195-2018.pdf

Benhelal, E., et al. 2013. Global strategies and potentials to curb CO2 emissions in cement industry. Journal of cleaner production, 51, 142-161. http://www.academia.edu/download/39977040/1-s2.0-S0959652612006129-main.pdf

Beyond Zero Emissions.  August 2017. Zero Carbon Industry Plan: Rethinking Cement. Available for download at http://bze.org.au

Davis, S.J., et al. 2018. Net-zero emissions energy systems. Science, 360(6396), eaas9793. https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt16109441/qt16109441.pdf

Lehne, J., & Preston., F. June 2018. Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete. Chatham House Report. http://bit.ly/2Vlb3oC

Timperley, J. September 13 2018. Q&A: Why cement emissions matter for climate change. https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-why-cement-emissions-matter-for-climate-change

World Bank. 2019. World Development Indicators: Urban population. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL

Direct download: The_Problem_With_Concrete.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:14pm EDT

Scientists are trying to figure out if they can predict big earthquakes by simulating small quakes in labs and studying big quakes under the ocean. Thanks to the University of Rhode Island for sponsoring this video.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Earthquake: A violent shaking of the earth, usually due to movements of tectonic plates under the earth’s crust.
Seismometer: An instrument that detects changes in the up-down motion of the earth.
Seismic body waves: Higher frequency waves released by earthquakes that can move through solid rock.
Seismic surface waves: Lower frequency waves released by earthquakes that move along the ground and cause most damage.
Earthquake Early Warning System: A network of strategically placed seismometers that trigger emergency warning systems in particular areas when they detect large seismic body waves.
Evacuation Clearance Time: The time needed to evacuate a particular population to safety.
Earthquake Precursor: An anomalous event that gives an effective warning of an impending earthquake.
Transform Faults: Faults where two tectonic plates slide past each other.
___________________________________________


Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
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Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor, Video Director & Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar (@JesseAgarYT)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder


___________________________________________
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant 1654416. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
___________________________________________

References:

Geller, R. (1997). Earthquake Prediction: A Critical Review. Geophysical Journal International. 131 (425-450). Retrieved from: https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/131/3/425/2138719

Wei, M. (2018). Seismic Behavior on Oceanic Transform Faults at the East Pacific Rise. Transform Plate Boundaries and Fracture Zones. Elsevier. Retrieved from: https://www.elsevier.com/books/transform-plate-boundaries-and-fracture-zones/duarte/978-0-12-812064-4

Hsu, Y., and Peeta, S. (2015). Clearance Time Estimation for Incorporating Evacuation Risk in Routing Strategies for Evacuation Operation. Networks and Spatial Economics. 15 (743-764). Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11067-013-9195-5

Kucken, M. and Newell, A. (2005). Fingerprint Formation. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 235 (71-83). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15833314.

Wei, M. (2019). Personal Communication. Graduate School of Oceanography. University of Rhode Island.

Direct download: Why_Earthquakes_Are_So_Hard_To_Predict.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 8:26am EDT

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Because of the chaotic way fingerprints develop and the multiplying effect of compound probability, it's basically impossible for any two fingers to have matching prints.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Fingerprint: The markings on the skin on the last joint of the thumb or finger.
Fingerprint Ridges: The raised lines on the fingerprint.
Fingerprint Pattern: The main design in the middle of the fingerprint; usually a loop, whorl, or arch.
Volar Pad: The mass of stem cells that grows under the fingers during a particular time during fetal development that is responsible for determining the pattern of the fingerprint.
Fingerprint Minutiae: The various tiny points in each fingertip where the ridgelines get blocked or split.
Compound Probability: The likelihood that independent events will occur simultaneously.
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer, Video Director, and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia & Ever Salazar
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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References:

Kucken, M. and Newell, A. (2005). Fingerprint Formation. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 235 (71-83). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15833314.

Kucken, M. (2007). Models for Fingerprint Pattern Formation. Forensic Science International. 171 (85-96). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17459625.

Kucken, Michael (2018). Personal Communication. Center of Information Services and High Performance Computing. TU Dresden.

Wertheim, K. (2011). Fingerprint Sourcebook: Embryology and Morphology of the Friction Skin Ridge. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=247303

Direct download: Why_Are_Your_Fingerprints_Unique.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:00pm EDT

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