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Because the ossification process can differ so much from human to human, we have a wide range of potential bone numbers.

 

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Cartilage: The flexible connective tissue that is turned to bone by osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts: Cells that control calcium and mineral deposition to turn cartilage into bone.
Sesamoids: Bones embedded in tendons or muscles.
Fabella: A large sesamoid bone occasionally found behind the knee joint.
Coccyx: The small set of semi-fused triangular bones at the end of the vertebral column.

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Director and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder



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References:

 

Goldberg I, Nathan H. (1987). Anatomy and pathology of the sesamoid bones. The hand compared to the foot. International Orthopaedics. 11(2):141-7. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3610408.

Vineet K. Sarin  Gregory M. Erickson  Nicholas J. Giori A. Gabrielle Bergman  Dennis R. Carter (2003). Coincident development of sesamoid bones and clues to their evolution. The Anatomical Record.5: 174-180. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0185%2819991015%29257%3A5%3C174%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-O.

Tao Sun, Lingxiang Wang, Haitao Zhao,Wenjuan Wu,and Wenhai Hu (2016). Prevalence, morphological variation and ossification of sesamoid bones of the forefoot: a retrospective radiographic study of 8,716 Chinese subjects. 2(3): 91–96. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6410651/.

Postacchini F, Massobrio M. (1983). Idiopathic coccygodynia: Analysis of fifty-one operative cases and a radiographic study of the normal coccyx. The Journal of bone and joint surgery. 65(8): 1116-1124. Retrieved from: https://www.coccyx.org/medabs/posta.htm.

Meals, Roy. (2019). Personal Communication. http://www.AboutBone.com

Direct download: ME_193_-_d4_720.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:13pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Fruit trees are unpredictable and grow slowly, and consumer tastes are fickle, so successful new varieties of fruit are rare.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:

grafting: joining together a cut branch with a cut root of the same species to produce a new individual

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Script Writer: Peter Reich
Script Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) and Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)
Video Director: Ever Salazar and Alex Reich
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, and Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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References:

Hoying SA, AM DeMarree and MM Sazo. 2012. Successful Apple Grafting Techniques for New York. New York Fruit Quarterly 20 7-10.

Janick J. 2005. The origin of fruits, fruit growing, and fruit breeding. Plant Breeding Rev. 25:255-320.

Luby JJ and DS Bedford. 1992. Honeycrisp apple. Minnesota Report 225-1992 (AD-MR-5877-B)

Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 2019. Fruit Breeding. University of Minnesota website. http://arb.umn.edu/horticultural-research-center/fruit-breeding

Seetin M. 2018. 2018 U.S. Apple Crop Outlook and Overview. usapple.org 42 pages

Tadesse W et al. 2019. Genetic gains in wheat breeding and its role in feeding the world. Crop Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics 2019;1:e190005. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20190005

Yamamato T. 2016. Breeding, genetics and genomics of fruit trees. Breeding Science 66:1-2.

Direct download: Why_Its_HARD_To_Bring_A_New_Apple_To_Market.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 5:23pm EDT

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Experts can't agree on the definition of the term "concussion," which makes it difficult to diagnose, treat, and research this important brain injury. 

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a progressive degenerative disease of the brain found in people with a history of repetitive brain trauma (often athletes)
Traumatic brain injury (TBI): a disruption in the normal function of the brain that can be caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head, or penetrating head injury
Subdural hematoma: a collection of blood between the layers of tissue that surround the brain
Cerebral microbleeding: small chronic brain hemorrhages which are likely caused by structural abnormalities of the small vessels of the brain 

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Everything we know about concussions is wrong – https://qz.com/1136683/everything-we-know-about-concussions-is-wrong/

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Script Writer, Video Director, Narrator: Julián Gustavo Gómez (@ittakesii)

Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Arcadi Garcia Rius 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder



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References:


Rasmussen, Carly, et al. "How Dangerous Are Youth Sports for the Brain: A Review of the Evidence." Berkeley J. Ent. & Sports L. 7 (2018): 67. - https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&context=bjesl

Shen, Francis X. "Are youth sports concussion statutes working." Duq. L. Rev. 56 (2018): 7. - https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3172294

Sharp, David J., and Peter O. Jenkins. "Concussion is confusing us all." Practical neurology 15.3 (2015): 172-186. - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4453625/

Tator, Charles H. "Concussions and their consequences: current diagnosis, management and prevention." CMAJ 185.11 (2013): 975-979. - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3735746/

Whitelaw, A. S., and I. Young. "A case of perilymphatic fistula in blunt head injury." Emergency medicine journal 22.12 (2005): 921-921. - https://emj.bmj.com/content/22/12/921

Mason, Peggy. “Concussion Is a Counter-Productive Term: Let's Retire It.” The Brain Is Sooooo Cool!, 5 July 2015, https://thebrainissocool.com/2015/07/05/concussion-is-a-counter-productive-term-lets-retire-it/

Haller, Sven, et al. "Cerebral microbleeds: imaging and clinical significance." Radiology 287.1 (2018): 11-28. - https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiol.2018170803

Goldenbaum, Ellen. “Is It Really a Concussion? Symptoms Overlap with Neck Injuries, Making Diagnosis a Tough Call.” UB News Center, 29 July 2014, http://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2014/07/040.html

Direct download: ME_184_-_d4_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:31pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

We’re in the middle of a rapid, unprecedented, and world-changing increase in the intensity and scale of human activity on this planet.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

The Great Acceleration - the dramatic increase in human activity, largely since 1950, that is evident across a variety of socio-economic and biophysical measures, and that has made humans into a planetary scale force
The Anthropocene -  our current geological epoch (contested), beginning when humans first had significant impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems
Hockey stick graph - typically refers to the Mann et al 1999 graph of Earth’s temperature, but can also refer to any trend that's roughly constant for a long duration and then has a drastic upwards shift

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Welcome to the Anthropocene film - https://vimeo.com/39048998
Animated map of last 200,000 years of human population - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUwmA3Q0_OE
The history of emissions and the Great Acceleration - https://skepticalscience.com/EmmissionsAcceleration.html
The Hockey Stick Controversy - https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/05/the-hockey-stick-the-most-controversial-chart-in-science-explained/275753/
An argument for 'why growth can’t be green’ - https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/12/why-growth-cant-be-green/#
Can we stabilize Earth, or are we going to cross planetary thresholds? - www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1810141115 
An attainable global vision for conservation and human well-being - https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/TNC_AnAttainableGlobalVision_Frontiers.pdf

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Video Director and Illustrator: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)

With Contributions From: Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman, Arcadi Garcia

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

Image Credits: Hockey stick graph: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T_comp_61-90.pdf by Klaus Bittermann. Used with permission.
Copper graph based on: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_copper#/media/File:Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg
Life expectancy graph: https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy
CO2 graph: https://rateofchange.substack.com/p/the-rate-of-change-july-15-2019
Girl receiving oral polio vaccine: https://www.flickr.com/photos/cdcglobal/8190819087 No changes were made.

 

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References:

 

Barnosky, A. D., et al. 2014. Introducing the scientific consensus on maintaining humanity’s life support systems in the 21st century: Information for policy makers. The Anthropocene Review, 1(1), 78-109. http://bit.ly/34rguHz

IGPB. 2015. Great Acceleration. http://www.igbp.net/globalchange/greatacceleration.4.1b8ae20512db692f2a680001630.html Accessed Aug 2019.

Hellmann, J. Aug 2019. Personal communication.

Mann, M. E., et al. 1999. Northern hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Geophysical Research Letters, 26(6), 759-762. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999GL900070.

McNeill, J.R. Oct 2019. Personal communication.

McNeill, J. R. 2001. Something new under the sun: An environmental history of the twentieth-century world (the global century series). WW Norton & Company.

Roser, M. 2019. Life Expectancy. Our World In Data. https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy Accessed Sept 2019.

Phillipon, D. Aug 2019. Personal communication.

Polasky, S. Sept 2019. Personal communication.

Steffen, W. et al. 2015. The trajectory of the Anthropocene: the great acceleration. The Anthropocene Review, 2(1), 81-98. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2053019614564785

Thompson et al. 2009. Our plastic age. 364. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0054

Direct download: ME_191_-_d5_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:35pm EDT

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

 

New technology has revolutionized how we study wild animals, but it has also bogged down scientists with data...luckily, there's an *intelligent* solution.

 

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.

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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: 

Deep learning: a subset of machine learning in artificial intelligence that can learning from data that is unstructured or unlabeled

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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: 

Take a look at the Snapshot Serengeti colletion and try your hand at classifying species, counting animals, and determining behaviors: https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/zooniverse/snapshot-serengeti

Learn about the whale shark project and report your sightings: https://www.whaleshark.org/

Explore underwater recordings of humpback whales and make your own discoveries: https://patternradio.withgoogle.com/

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer, Editor, Video Director and Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman 

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

 

Image Credits: All the photos of the savannah by the SnapshotSerengeti Project
https://snapshotserengeti.org

Sogod Bay Whale Shark video by Miguel Hilario
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=husPSPJv80o

 

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References:


Duporge I, Isupova O, and Reece S (2019, April 4) Using Satellite Imagery and Machine Learning to Detect and Monitor Elephants. https://blog.hexagongeospatial.com/using-satellite-imagery-and-machine-learning-to-detect-and-monitor-elephants/

Norouzzadeh MS, Nguyen A, Kosmala M, Swanson A, Palmer MS, Packer C, and Clune J (2018). Automatically identifying, counting, and describing wild animals in camera-trap images with deep learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115 (25): E5716-E5725. https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/37298550/6016780.pdf?sequence=1

Packer C, personal communication (2019, September 12).

Swanson AB, Kosmala M, Lintott CJ, Simpson RJ, Smith A, Packer C (2015) Snapshot Serengeti, high-frequency annotated camera trap images of 40 mammalian species in an African savanna. Scientific Data 2: 150026. https://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201526

Wildbook for Whale Sharks. https://www.whaleshark.org/

Direct download: ME_190_-_720p.mp4
Category:general -- posted at: 12:36pm EDT

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