Buy the book: "Where the Animals Go: Tracking Wildlife with Technology in 50 Maps and Graphics" at http://www.wheretheanimalsgo.com

Migrating birds care more about the ease of their trip than the distance they travel, and that leads to some truly roundabout routes.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Migration: The seasonal movement of a population of animals from one area to another.
Prevailing winds: Winds in a particular area that blow in a particular direction.
Thermal: An upward current of warm air.
Lift: A force that counteracts the weight of an object and holds it in the air.
Flyway: A route regularly used by lots of migrating birds.
___________________________________________

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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi García
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Horton, K., Van Doren, B., Stepanian, P.,Hochachka, W., Farnsworth, A., and Kelly, J. (2016). Nocturnally migrating songbirds drift when they can and compensate when they must. Scientific Reports 6, 1-8. Nature. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/srep21249

Kranstauber,B., Weinzierl, R., Wikelski, M., Safi, K. (2015). Global aerial flyways allow efficient travelling. Ecology Letters. 18: 133. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12528/full

Liechti, F. (2006). Birds: blowin’ by the wind.Journal of Ornithology. 47: 202–211. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10336-006-0061-9.

Reddy, G., Celani, A., Sejnowski, T., and Vergassola, M. (2016). Learning to soar in turbulent environments. PNAS. 113(33):E4877-84. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27482099

Shamoun-Baranes, J., Leshem, Y., Yom-Tov, Y., and Liech, O. (2003). Differential use of thermal convection by soaring birds over central Israel. The Condor. 105:208-218. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1370541.

Leshem, Yossi. (2017) Professor of Life Science, Tel-Aviv University. Personal Communication.

Considering humans' increased impact on the environment, we may want to reconsider whether there is still a place in our legal system for the Act of God defense.

Thanks to all our viewers and supporters for an incredible year of videos!

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Act of God: A natural disaster that is outside of human influence or control, such that no one will be held responsible for the resulting damages.
Reasonable precautions: The ordinary or usual precautions that a person would take to prevent damage from a natural disaster.
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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
Learn about some of the damage done in the flood of 1903: https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/flood-of-1903/17221
_________________________________________

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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Melissa Hayes
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Jessika Raisor
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Merritt Creamery Co. v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry. Co., 122 S.W. 322, 139 Mo. App. 149 (Mo. App., 1909).

Herring, S. C., A. Hoell, M. P. Hoerling, J. P. Kossin, C. J. Schreck III, and P. A. Stott, Eds., 2016: Explaining Extreme Events of 2015 from a Climate Perspective. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 97 (12), S1–S145, doi:10.1175/BAMS -ExplainingExtremeEvents2015.1.

Trenberth, K. E., Fasullo, J. T., & Shepherd, T. G. (2015). Attribution of climate extreme events. Nature Climate Change, 5(8), 725-730. doi:10.1038/nclimate2657.

Stott, P. (2016). How climate change affects extreme weather events. Science, 352(6293), 1517-1518. doi:10.1126/science.aaf7271.

Jill M. Fraley, Re-examining Acts of God, 27 Pace Envtl. L. Rev. 669 (2010) Available at: h6p://digitalcommons.pace.edu/pelr/vol27/iss3/4.

Loimer, H., & Guarnieri, M. (1996). Accidents and acts of God: a history of the terms. American Journal of Public Health, 86(1), 101-107. doi:10.2105/ajph.86.1.101

Thanks to 23andMe for sponsoring this video! http://www.23andme.com/minuteearth

When we domesticate an animal species, their brains shrink and they freak out less.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Domesticated animal: a species of animal bred by humans over generations to become nonreactive and gain characteristics suitable for life as a farm animal or pet

Tame animal: an individual animal raised in a way that it has become less dangerous and frightened of people

Feral animal: an animal that escapes from captivity or domestication (& regains some similar & some different characteristics compared to its pre-domesticated state)

"Fight or flight": an instinctive physiological response to a threatening situation that readies a creature to either to resist forcibly or escape

Limbic system: the brain’s “panic button” - a system of nerves and networks near the bottom of the cortex that controls basic emotions (e.g. fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (e.g. hunger, sex, dominance)

Telencephalon: the most developed and anterior part of the forebrain, consisting chiefly of the cerebral hemispheres, and the brain region that shrinks most in domesticated animals

Domestication: a sustained multigenerational, mutualistic relationship in which one species (e.g. humans) assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another species (e.g. cows) in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest (e.g. milk/meat/traction), and through which the domesticated organisms gain advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship (e.g. aurochs, which went extinct), thereby benefitting and often increasing the fitness of both species involved
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:

Brain Scoop video on brain size and intelligence: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJW8jIDfP9E

Russian Fox Domestication Experiment: https://goo.gl/5nWnXz

What happens to domesticated animals & their brains when they escape back to the wild?: http://www.nature.com/news/when-chickens-go-wild-1.19195#/free%5C
_________________________________________

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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Keenan Parry & Ever Salazar (@unpuntocircular)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Agnvall, B. et al. 2017. Is evolution of domestication driven by tameness? A selective review with focus on chickens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.09.006

Eberhard, W. G., & Wcislo, W. T. 2011. Grade changes in brain-body allometry: morphological and behavioural correlates of brain size in miniature spiders, insects and other invertebrates. Advances in Insect Physiology, 40, 155. http://www.stri.si.edu/sites/publications/PDFs/2011_Eberhard_Wcislo_AdvIns_Physiol.pdf

Kruska, D. C. 2005. On the evolutionary significance of encephalization in some eutherian mammals: effects of adaptive radiation, domestication, and feralization. Brain, behavior and evolution, 65(2), 73-108. https://goo.gl/J86NEd

Kruska, D. C. Personal Communication, Oct 2017.

Marchetti, M. P., & Nevitt, G. A. 2003. Effects of hatchery rearing on brain structures of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Environmental biology of Fishes, 66(1), 9-14. https://goo.gl/GL6LWG

Marchetti, M. Personal Communication, Oct 2017.

Wright, D. Personal Communication, Oct 2017.

Zeder, M. A. 2012. Pathways to animal domestication. Biodiversity in agriculture: Domestication, evolution and sustainability, 227-259. https://goo.gl/2xWSB8

Zeder, M. A. 2015. Core questions in domestication research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(11), 3191-3198. http://www.pnas.org/content/112/11/3191.full

Zeder, M. A. Personal Communication, Oct 2017.

Get your first KiwiCo box free by going to http://www.kiwico.com/minuteearth

Occasionally, internal or external factors change, allowing certain animals to become giant versions of themselves.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:

Spiracles: External respiratory openings on insects

Carboniferous Period: The time period from 359-299 million years ago when the Earth’s oxygen levels increased rapidly.

Square-Cube Law: A mathematical principle that describes the relationship between area and volume.

Buoyancy: An upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object.

Phytoplankton: Microscopic plants eaten by krill and other zooplankton.

Baleen: A filter-feeding system inside the mouth of some whales.

_________________________________________

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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)

Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)

Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Kaiser, A., et al. (2007). Increase in tracheal investment with beetle size supports hypothesis of oxygen limitation on insect gigantism. 13198-13203. PNAS. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1941816/

Sander, P. Christian, et al. (2011). Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs:the evolution of gigantism. Biological Reviews. 86(1): 117–155. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3045712/

Taylor, M and Weder, M. (2013). Why sauropods had long necks; and why giraffes have short necks. PeerJ 1:e36. Retrieved from: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1209.5439.pdf.

Verberk, W. and Bilton, D. (2011). Can Oxygen Set Thermal Limits in an Insect and Drive Gigantism? PLOS One. 6(7): e22610. Retrieved from: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0022610

Slater, G., Goldbogen, J., Pyenson, N. (2017). Independent evolution of baleen whale gigantism linked to Plio-Pleistocene ocean dynamics. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 284: 20170546. Retrieved from: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/284/1855/20170546.

This video was sponsored by "Robot-Proof", written by Northeastern University's President, Joseph E. Aoun. Learn more here: https://goo.gl/uF5Kx8

Thank you to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

Even the parts of our brains that don't control physical movement show a lot of rhythm, and that might be integral to how our brains work.
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To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:

neural oscillation: better known as a "brainwave," a neural oscillation is repetitive, often rhythmic activity in the central nervous system. neurons can sync up with the help of pacemaker cells or structure, or through entrainment.

entrainment: the ability of tons and tons of neurons to quickly sync up is due to something called entrainment – here's a cool demo of essentially how that works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bl2aYFv_978

central pattern generator: neural networks that produce rhythmic, patterned electrical outputs. CPGs are usually relatively simple neural circuits and are responsible for virtually all the rhythmic motions you see in nature, from jellyfish swimming to human breathing. while we often think of our brains as reaction machines – like, we touch something hot and quickly pull away – central pattern generators don't need any stimulus to work. you can pull them out of an animal and put them in a petri dish and the neurons will still fire with the same rhythms.

feature binding: when you see your cat and you know right away it's your cat...well, somehow, your brain is putting together all kinds of information about the object's shape, size, color, motion, position in your field of vision, and lots of other contextual clues to make that happen. neuroscientists call this "feature binding," and neural oscillations may be key to pulling it off.

_________________________________________

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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

Image Credits:

Snake Crawling - BigfootHD
https://www.shutterstock.com/video/clip-2582720-stock-footage-snake-crawling.html

Greyhound running - Objectivity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq_Oj6qzeIU

Hummingbird - Smarter Every Day
https://youtu.be/1VA8v1btKdQ?t=73

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References:

Buzsaki, G. Personal Communication, October 2017.

Buzsaki, G. (2006) Rhythms of the Brain. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gyorgy_Buzsaki/publication/223130267_Rhythms_of_The_Brain/links/00b4952bb0ae609ac9000000/Rhythms-of-The-Brain.pdf

Cabron, J. Personal Communcation, October 2017.

Engel, A.K. and Fries, P. and Singer, W. (2001) Dynamic predictions: Oscillations and synchrony in top–down processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, pp 704-716. Retrieved from http://www.dankalia.com/science/neu127.pdf

Getting, P.A. (1989) Emerging Principles Governing the Operation of Neural Networks. Annual Review of Neuroscience. Vol. 12:185-204

Llinas, R. Personal Communication, October 2017.

Lisman, J. and Buzsaki, G. (2008) A Neural Coding Scheme Formed by the Combined Function of Gamma and Theta Oscillations. Schizophrenia Bulletin, Volume 34:5, pp 974–980. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/34/5/974/1881304

Lisman, J. Personal Communication, October 2017.

Marder, E and Calabrese, R.L. (1996) Principles of rhythmic motor pattern generation. Physiological Reviews, 76(3), pp 687-717. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1900/8ec50b0d0bcff24438c9a0eb57f9e33f7a85.pdf

Marder, E. Personal Communication, October 2017.

Singer, W. Personal Communication, October 2017.

Thanks to 23andMe for sponsoring this video! http://www.23andme.com/minuteearth

Male birds have the largest genital diversity of any class of animals because their sex chromosomes make it easy to pass male-helping mutations down the line.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Sex chromosome: A chromosome involved in determining the sex of an individual.
Cloaca: A posterior orifice that serves as the only exit for the gastrointestinal, urinary and genital tracts.
Mutation: An alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene.
Sexually-selected Trait: A trait based on a mutation that confers a reproductive advantage.
BMP4: A protein whose presence halts the growth of bird penises in the egg.
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If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
An article from The Week about some of the strangest penises in the animal kingdom: http://theweek.com/articles/474417/12-weirdest-animal-penises-earth-updated
_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Brennan, P. and Prum, R. (2015). Mechanisms and Evidence of Genital Coevolution: The Roles of Natural Selection,Mate Choice, and Sexual Conflict. 1-21. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. Retrieved from: http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/7/7/a017749.abstract

Brennan, P. (2013). Genital Evolution: Cock-a-Doodle-Don’t. Current Biology. R523-R525. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213004430

Brennan, P., Birkhead, T., Zyskowski, K., van der Waagand, J., and Prum, R. (2008). Independent evolutionary reductions of the phallus in basal birds. Journal of Avian Biology, 39: 487-492. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04610.x/abstract.

Briskie, J. and Montgomerie, R. (1997). Sexual selection and the intromittent organ of birds. Journal of Avian Biology. 28: 73-86. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3677097?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Herrera, A., Brennan, P., and Cohn, M. (2014). Development of Avian External Genitalia: Interspecific Differences and Sexual Differentiation of the Male and Female Phallus. Sexual Development. 9: 43-52. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25011524.

Reinhold, K. (1998). Sex linkage among genes controlling sexually selected traits. Sexual Selection. 44:1-7. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002650050508.

Image Credits:

Mandarin Ducks - Francis C. Franklin
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg

Gorillas - Based on photo by Wikimedia user No escape
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gorillafamily.JPG

Lake Duck Penis - Kevin McCracken (Published in Nature 2001)

The incredible chemical weapon-making abilities of fungi, bacteria, and plants have created an incredible array of compounds that are useful to humans.

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Bioprospecting: the systematic search for and development of new sources of chemical compounds, genes, micro-organisms, macro-organisms, and other valuable products from nature
___________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Bills, G.F. and Gloer, J.B. (2016) Biologically Active Secondary Metabolites from the Fungi. Microbiology Spectrum 4(6): 6

Cragg, G.M. and Newman, D.J. (2005) Biodiversity: A continuing source of novel drug leads. Pure and Appled Chemistry 77: 7–24

Mazid, M., Khan, T.A. and Mohammad, F. (2011) Role of secondary metabolites in defense mechanisms of plants. Biology and Medicine 3(2): 232–249.

Newman, D.J. and Cragg, G.M. (2016) Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs from 1981 to 2014. Journal of Natural Products 79: 629-661

O’Brien, J. and Wright, G.D. (2011) An ecological perspective of microbial secondary metabolism. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 22:552–558

Female hyenas don't have penises, but it sure looks like they do - and we still aren't quite sure why.

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/r/minuteearth2

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Pseudopenis: a structure that resembles a penis but is developmentally (and functionally) different
Masculinization: the process by which female genitalia is made to appear more like male genitalia
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
Why It Sucks to Be a Male Hyena
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBCNWmU5apE

Hyena having a baby at the Buffalo Zoo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rd7TvoPtWM
_________________________________________

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Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

Video Credits:
Spotted Hyenas Mating - Olivia Spagnuolo

Image Credits:
Female Spotted Hyena - Kate Yoshida
Spotted Hyena Pseudopenis - Kay Holekamp

Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) - Flickr user Jean
https://www.flickr.com/photos/7326810@N08/3091611374

Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) - Bernard DUPONT
https://www.flickr.com/photos/berniedup/6472940707/

Proteles cristatus - Dominik Käuferle
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Proteles_cristatus1.jpg

Squirrel monkey - Wikimedia user Megapixie
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Squirrel_monkey-_fuji.jpg

Ring tailed lemur - Wikimedia user Sannse
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ring_tailed_lemur_and_twins.jpg

Fossa - Ran Kirlian
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cryptoprocta_Ferox.JPG

Binturong - Tassilo Rau
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Binturong_in_Overloon.jpg

___________________________________________

References:

Cunha GR, Risbridger G, Wang H, Place NJ, Grumbach M, Cunha TJ, Weldele M, Conley AJ, Barcellos D, Agarwal S, Bhargava A, Drea C, Hammond GL, Siiteri P, Coscia EM, McPhaul MJ, Baskin LS, Glickman SE. (2014) Development of the external genitalia: perspectives from the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Differentiation. 87(1-2):4-22. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030146811300087X?via%3Dihub

Frank LG (1997) Evolution of genital masculinization: why do female hyenas have such a large 'penis'? Trends Ecol. Evol. 12:58-62. http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(96)10063-X

Frank LG and Glickman SE (1994) Giving birth through a penile clitoris: parturition and dystocia in the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta). J. Zool. 234:659–665. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1994.tb04871.x/abstract

Frank LG, Weldele ML, and Glickman SE (1995) Masculinization costs in hyaenas. Nature 377:584–585. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v377/n6550/abs/377584b0.html?foxtrotcallback=true

Glickman SE, Cunha GR, Drea CM, Conley AJ and Place NJ (2006) Mammalian sexual differentiation: lessons from the spotted hyena. rends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 17 (9): 349–356. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043276006001767

Holekamp, KE, personal communication. August and September 2017.

Muller MN and Wrangham R (2002) Sexual Mimicry in Hyenas. The Quarterly Review of Biology 77 (1):3-16. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/339199?journalCode=qrb

Thanks to the Land Institute for sponsoring this video! To learn more about their work, visit https://landinstitute.org/

To feed everyone in the future, we may need to disrupt 10,000 years of farming practices and turn agriculture into a closed system.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Annual plant: living for a year or less, perpetuating itself by seed
Perennial plant: living for several years
Polyculture: the simultaneous cultivation or exploitation of several crops or kinds of animals
Natural systems agriculture: cropping systems based on processes found in nature
Agroforestry: land use management that combines the cultivation of trees/shrubs with crops/pasture to create more productive and sustainable land-use systems
Alley cropping: planting agricultural crops between rows of trees or shrubs
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
Alley cropping: https://nac.unl.edu/documents/agroforestrynotes/an12ac01.pdf
Agroforestry: http://www.fao.org/forestry/agroforestry/89997/en/
_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
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Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Baker, B. 2017. Can Modern Agriculture Be Sustainable? Perennial polyculture holds promise. BioScience, 67(4), 325-331. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix018

Crews, T. E. 2016. Closing the Gap between Grasslands and Grain Agriculture. Kan. JL & Pub. Pol'y, 26, 274. https://goo.gl/d7BGsb

Dawson, C. J., & Hilton, J. 2011. Fertiliser availability in a resource-limited world: Production and recycling of nitrogen and phosphorus. Food Policy, 36, S14-S22. https://goo.gl/8dMuP1

Famiglietti, J. S. 2014. The global groundwater crisis. Nature Climate Change, 4(11), 945-948. http://aquadoc.typepad.com/files/jfam_global_gw_crisis.pdf

Kantar, M. B. et al. 2016. Perennial grain and oilseed crops. Annual review of plant biology, 67, 703-729. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-arplant-043015-112311

Montgomery, D. R. (2007). Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(33), 13268-13272. http://goo.gl/Si9E6g

Learn more about the Goalkeepers report from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation here: http://gates.ly/2fb6CNH

Nutrition during the first few years of life has a huge impact on adult height, and since nutrition has been getting better over time, humanity - including your family - is getting taller.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Osteoporosis: Condition in which bones lose density and break down.
Stunting: Impaired growth and development that children experience from poor nutrition.
Malabsorption: Condition in which the intestine can’t absorb enough nutrients and fluids.
Food insecurity: Lacking reliable access to sufficient and nutritious food.
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
More info on the Global Goals for Sustainable Development: http://www.globalgoals.org/#the-goals
_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

World Health Organization (2014). WHA Global Nutrition Targets 2025: Stunting Policy Brief. 1-10. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/globaltargets_stunting_policybrief.pdf

Caulfield, L., Richard, S., Rivera, J., Musgrove, P. and Black, R. (2006). Stunting, Wasting, and Micronutrient Deficiency Disorders. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 551-570. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11761/

NCD Risk Factor Collaboration. (2016). A Century of Trends in Adult Human Height. eLife. Retrieved from: https://elifesciences.org/articles/13410

Kang, H., Kreuels, B., Adjei, O., Krumkamp, R., May, J., and Small, D. (2013). The Causal Effect Of Malaria On Stunting: A Mendelian Randomization And Matching Approach. International Journal of Epidemiology. 42:1390–1398. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23925429

Sorkin, J., Muller, G., and Andres, R. (1999) Longitudinal Change in Height of Men and Women: Implications for Interpretation of the Body Mass Index. American Journal of Epidemiology. 150: 969-977. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10547143

India and China have so many people today because they’re good for farming and big, but they’ve always been that way, so they’ve actually had a huge proportion of Earth’s people for thousands of years.

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:

A very detailed map of world population density: https://populationexplorer.com/
Info about world population growth: https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth/

_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6

And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes:  https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)

Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCVisual)

Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)

Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Eraly, A., Khan, Y., Michell, G. & Saran, M. 2008. India. DK Publishing, New York.

Gidwani, V.K., April 2017, personal communication.

Goldewijk, K.K., Beusen, A., & Janssen, P. 2010. Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way: HYDE 3.1. The Holocene, 20(4), 565-573. https://goo.gl/BuwJLQ

Goldewijk, K.K., Arthur Beusen, Jonathan Doelman, and Elke Stehfest. "New anthropogenic land use estimates for the Holocene; HYDE 3.2.” Unpublished manuscript. https://goo.gl/z73PNr

Goldewijk, K.K., April 2017, personal communication.

Maddison, A. 2006. The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective. OECD. https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~aldous/157/Papers/world_economy.pdf

Roberts, E., March 2017, personal communication.

Ruggles, S., March 2017, personal communication.

Stearns, P. N. (Ed.). 2001. The encyclopedia of world history: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, chronologically arranged. Houghton Mifflin. Chicago.

Thanks also to Deepak Ray, Jamie Gerber, Emily Cassidy, and Ryan Loomis.

Give Blinkist a try! https://www.blinkist.com/MinuteEarth

What exactly makes sugary syrups so sticky, when neither water nor sugar is very sticky on its own?

Support MinuteEarth on Patreon: http://www.patreon.com/minuteearth

___________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Alex Reich, Henry Reich, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg, Ever Salazar
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:
Brown, T.L, LeMay, H.E., Bursten, B.E. (2006). Chapter 11: Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids. In Chemistry, The Central Science 10th edition. Retrieved from: http://alpha.chem.umb.edu/chemistry/ch115/Mridula/CHEM%20116/documents/chapter_11au.pdf

Elert, M., Personal Communication, July 2017.

Husband, T. (2014). The Sweet Science of Candymaking. Retrieved from: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/archive-2014-2015/candymaking.html

Longinotti, M.P. & Corti, H.R. (2008) Viscosity of concentrated sucrose and trehalose aqueous solutions including the supercooled regime. Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, 37: 1503-1516.

Molinero, V., Cagin, T., Goddard, W.A. (2003) Sugar, water and free volume networks in concentrated sucrose solutions. Chemical Physics Letters, 377:469–474. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8b49/ce63d9430af305c87c1dadfa0ec9bc646461.pdf

Wang, L.P., Personal Communication, February 2017.

Xia, J., & Case, D. A. (2012). Sucrose in Aqueous Solution Revisited: 1. Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Direct and Indirect Dipolar Coupling Analysis. Biopolymers, 97(5), 276–288. http://doi.org/10.1002/bip.22017

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Image Credits:
Sugar - Melissa Wiese
https://www.flickr.com/photos/42dreams/2452033439/

Sugar beet field - Gilles San Martin
https://www.flickr.com/photos/sanmartin/4799481326/

Sugar Cubes - David Pacey
https://www.flickr.com/photos/63723146@N08/7164573186/

Watch Henry’s MinutePhysics video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NucdlR9EGbA

MinuteEarth & MinutePhysics are on Patreon: http://www.patreon.com/minuteearth & http://www.patreon.com/minutephysics

It’s becoming harder and harder to categorize moons as moons.
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Moon: a natural satellite of a satellite of a star.
Satellite: A celestial body orbiting a larger celestial body.
Orbit: The path followed by one object revolving around another object under the influence of gravity.
Barycenter: The center of mass that two or more bodies orbit around.
Binary System: A system in which two similarly sized object orbit the same barycenter.
Hydrostatic equilibrium: Roundness that occurs when gravity is balanced by a pressure gradient force.
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
That’s no moon … it’s a space station! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGp_5gOww0E.
And here's a tidy illustrated difference between geocentrism and heliocentrism: http://www.malinc.se/math/trigonometry/geocentrismen.php
_________________________________________

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Alex Reich, Emily Elert, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Norton, J. (2008) Could a moon have moons? Popular Science. Retrieved from: http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2008-04/could-moon-have-moons

H. A. Weaver, S. A. Stern, M. J. Mutchler, A. J. Steffl, M. W. Buie, W. J. Merline, J. R. Spencer, E. F. Young, L. A. Young (2006). The Discovery of Two New Satellites of Pluto. Nature. 439: 943-945. Retrieved from: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7079/abs/nature04547.html?foxtrotcallback=true

Tiscareno, M., Burns, J., Sremcevi, M., Beurle, K., Hedman, M. Copper, N., Milano, A., Evans, M., Porco, C., Spitale, J., and WEiss, J. (2010) Physical Characteristics And Non-Keplerian Orbital Motion Of “Propeller” Moons Embedded In Saturn’s Rings. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 718: 92-96. Retrieved from: http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2041-8205/718/2/L92

Spahn, F., and Schmidt, J. (2006) Saturn’s Bared Mini-Moons. Nature, 440: 30-31. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7084/full/440614a.html

Get your FREE 2-month Skillshare trial: http://skl.sh/minuteearth2

The "Mountain or Valley?" illusion makes our brains turn valleys inside out. But inside-out valleys are a real thing, both on Earth and on Mars.

Thanks to Skillshare for sponsoring this video, and to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Inverted relief: a topographic feature, such as an old riverbed, that has reversed its elevation relative to other features.

Duricrust: a hard mineral crust formed at or near the surface of soil in semiarid regions by the evaporation of groundwater.

Geomorphology: the study of the physical features of the surface of the earth and their relation to its geological structures.

Exhumed paleochannel: a remnant of an inactive river or stream channel that has been either filled or buried by younger sediment, and then subsequently uncovered by erosion.

Erosion: the action of surface processes, including wind and water, that move dirt and rock from their original location to some other place.

Capillary action: the tendency of a liquid in a capillary tube or absorbent material to rise or fall as a result of surface tension.

Mineral precipitation: when dissolved compounds in a solution bond together to form a solid (a simple example is how dissolved sodium and chloride ions come together to form salt as water evaporates)
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writers: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) & Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Emily Elert, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

Image Credits: Yardangs and Ridges of the Edge of Aeolis Planum - NASA JPL University of Arizona
https://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_006683_1740

Raised Footprints - Alan Light
https://www.flickr.com/photos/alan_light/5904493388/
_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
The "Mountain Or Valley?" Illusion by MinutePhysics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V7C318DGB38

Inverted Relief at Green River, Utah
https://www.google.com/maps/@38.8744077,-110.2558884,867m/data=!3m1!1e3

___________________________________________

References:

Clarke, J., July 2016, personal communication.

Clarke, J. D., & Stoker, C. R. (2011). Concretions in exhumed and inverted channels near Hanksville Utah: implications for Mars. International Journal of Astrobiology, 10(03), 161-175. doi:10.1017/s1473550411000048

Harris, D.R. (1980). Exhumed paleochannels in the Lower Cretaceous Cedar
Mountain formation near Green river. Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Geol.
Stud. 27, 51–66.

Malin, M. C. (2003). Evidence for Persistent Flow and Aqueous Sedimentation on Early Mars. Science, 302(5652), 1931-1934. doi:10.1126/science.1090544

Miller, R. P. (1937). Drainage Lines in Bas-Relief. The Journal of Geology, 45(4), 432-438. doi:10.1086/624550

Pain, C.P & Ollier, C.D. (1996). Regolith stratigraphy: principles and problems. Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics, 16(3), 197-202.

Pain, C., Clarke, J., & Thomas, M. (2007). Inversion of relief on Mars. Icarus, 190(2), 478-491. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.017

Pain, C., July 2016, personal communication.

Infinitesimally small quantum dots can turn a window into a see-through solar panel!

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Solar window: a window that functions like an ordinary window but also generates power like a solar panel

Nanoparticle (also called nanopowder or nanocluster or nanocrystal): a microscopic particle with at least one dimension less than 100 nm. These tiny objects often have characteristics that differ from larger versions of the same material.

Quantum dots (QD): tiny nanoparticles of some kind of semiconducting material, only several nanometers in size, so small that their optical and electronic properties differ from those of larger particles.
The QDs embedded in solar windows can absorb radiation largely in short wavelengths and re-emit in longer wavelengths; useful for capturing solar energy and successfully tranferring it to the solar cells on the edges of the pane.
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Peter/Emily
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCVisual)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

Image Credits: Thumbnail: R. Lunt, MSU.
_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

References:

Bradshaw, L. R., Knowles, K. E., McDowall, S. & Gamelin, D. R. Nanocrystals for luminescent solar concentrators. Nano Lett. 15, 1315–1323 (2015).

Meinardi, F., Ehrenberg, S., Dhamo, L., Carulli, F., Mauri, M., Bruni, F., Simonutti, R., Kortshagen, U. and Brovelli, S., 2017. Highly efficient luminescent solar concentrators based on earth-abundant indirect-bandgap silicon quantum dots. Nature Photonics, 11(3), pp.177-185.

Meinardi, F. et al. Highly efficient large-area colourless luminescent solar concentrators using heavy-metal-free colloidal quantum dots. Nat. Nanotech.10, 878–885 (2015).

Yang, C, R. R. Lunt. Limits of Visibly Transparent Luminescent Solar Concentrators. Adv. Opt. Mat., 5, 8, 1600851, 2017.

Zhao Y., G. Meek, B. Levine, and R. R. Lunt, “Near-Infrared Harvesting Transparent Luminescent Solar Concentrators”. Adv. Opt. Mat., 2, 606, 2014.

Thanks to spotted hyenas’ unusual social structure, males experience a tough life of solitude, harassment, and deprivation.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Sex role reversed species: a species in which males and females exhibit roles other than what might be expected based on other aspects of their biology and mating systems
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

Video Credits: Hyenas feeding - Kate Yoshida
Image Credits: Scarface - Kate Yoshida

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
A blog by researchers currently studying spotted hyenas in Kenya's Masai Mara: http://msuhyenas.blogspot.com/

___________________________________________

References:

Chepko-Sade, B. D. & Z. T. Halpin. 1987. Mammalian dispersal patterns: the effects of social stucture on population genetics. University of Chicago Press. Chicago, Illinois.

Holekamp, K.E. & Smale, L. (2000) Feisty females and meek males: reproductive strategies in the spotted hyena. In Reproduction in Context. K. Wallen and J. Schneider (Eds). MIT Press. Cambridge. MA. Pp. 257-285.

Kruuk H. 1972. The spotted hyena: a study of predation and social behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Smale, L., Nunes, S., and Holekamp, K.E. (1997) Sexually dimorphic dispersal in mammals: patterns, causes and consequences. Advances in the Study of Behavior 26: 181-250.

Strauss, E., February 2017, personal communication.

Turner, J., June 2017, personal communication.

Van Horn, R.C., McElhinny, T.L. & Holekamp, K. E. (2003) Age estimation and dispersal in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Journal of Mammalogy 84: 1019-1030.

Watts, H. E. & Holekamp, K. E. (2007) Hyena societies. Current Biology 17: R657-R660.

Worms cause major changes to ecosystems, but those changes aren’t always new.

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Invasive species: A non-native species that causes harm to the ecosystem.
Biome: A large, naturally occurring community of flora and fauna.
Duff layer: The moderately to highly decomposed organic material between the leaf litter and the soil.
Seedling: A young plant less than one meter high.
Sapling: A young tree that’s bigger than a seedling.
Graminoids: Herbaceous plants and grasses.
Coevolution: The process that occurs when two closely associated species influence each other’s evolutionary paths.
Savanna: A grassy plain with scattered tree coverage.
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCVisual)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ
And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

___________________________________________

References:

Dylan Craven, Madhav P. Thakur, Erin K. Cameron, Lee E. Frelich, Robin Beauséjour, Robert B. Blair, Bernd Blossey, James Burtis, Amy Choi, Andrea Dávalos, Timothy J. Fahey, Nicholas A. Fisichelli, Kevin Gibson, I. Tanya Handa, Kristine Hopfensperger, Scott R. Loss, Victoria Nuzzo, John C. Maerz, Tara Sackett, Bryant C. Scharenbroch, Sandy M. Smith, Mark Vellend, Lauren G. Umek, Nico Eisenhauer (2016). The unseen invaders: introduced earthworms as drivers of change in plant communities in North American forests (a meta-analysis). Global Change Biology. 1-10. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13446/full

Sonja Migge-Kleian, Mary Ann McLean, John C. Maerz, and Liam Heneghan (2006). The influence of invasive earthworms on indigenous fauna in ecosystems previously uninhabited by earthworms. Biological Invasions. 8:6 (1275-1285). Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-006-9021-9

Alexander M.Roth, Timothy J.S.Whitfeld, Alexandra G. Lodge, Nico Eisenhauer, Lee E. Frelich· and Peter B. Reich (2015). Invasive earthworms interact with abiotic conditions to influence the invasion of common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica). Oecologia. 178: 219:230. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25481818

Hendrit, Paul (Editor). 2007. Biological Invasions Belowground: Earthworms as Invasive Species.

Wackett, Adrian. (2017). Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota. Personal Communication.

Because of space physics, one faraway asteroid is likely the progenitor of almost a third of all the meteorites on Earth.

Thanks to Skillshare for sponsoring this video: skl.sh/MinuteEarth

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:

Asteroid: A rocky body smaller than a planet that is orbiting the sun.
Meteoroid: A smaller rocky body moving in the solar system.
Meteor: A meteoroid that has entered the Earth’s atmosphere.
Meteorite: A meteor that hits the Earth.
Orbital resonance: A force that occurs when orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, because of the length of their relative orbits.
Kirkwood Gap: A dip in the distribution of main belt asteroids that correspond to the locations of orbital resonances with Jupiter.

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Script Editor: Alex Reich

Video Illustrator: Jorge

Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)

Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

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___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:

A terrifying but fascinating look at the destructive power of potential meteorites: http://www.purdue.edu/impactearth/

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References:

Burbine, T., McCoy, T., Meibom, A., Royer, C., Gladman, B., and Keil, K. (2002). Meteoritic Parent Bodies: Their Number and Identification. Asteroids III. 653-667. Retrieved from: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002aste.book..653B

Farinella, P., Gonczi, R., Froeschle, Ch., and Froeschle, C. (1993). The Injection of Asteroid Fragments into Resonances. Icarus. 101: 174-187. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001910358371016X

Fieber-Beyer, S., Gaffey, M., Bottke, W., and Hardersen, P. (2015). Potentially hazardous Asteroid 2007 LE: Compositional link to the black chondrite Rose City and Asteroid (6) Hebe. Icarus. 250: 430-437. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514007088

Gaffey, M. and Gilbert, S. (1998). Asteroid 6 Hebe: The probable parent body of the H-type ordinary chondrites and the IIE iron meteorites. Meteoritics and Planetary Science. 33: 1281-1295. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1945-5100.1998.tb01312.x/abstract

Vokrouhlicky, D., and Farinella, P. (2000). Efficient delivery of meteorites to the Earth from a wide range of asteroid parent bodies. Nature. 407: 606-608. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v407/n6804/full/407606a0.html

Moons, M. and Morbidelli, A. (1995). Secular Resonances in Mean Motion Commensurabilities: The 4/1, 3/1, 5/2, and 7/3 Cases. Icarus. 114: 33-50. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001910358571041X

Burbine, Thomas. (2017). Assistant Professor of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts. Personal Communication.

A monitoring system developed to listen for secret nuclear tests mostly hears other events happening all around Earth.

Thanks to CTBTO for sponsoring this video: www.ctbto.org

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

___________________________________________

FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:

• Infrasound: sound waves too low in frequency for humans to hear. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02 to 4Hz
• Hydroacoustic: having to do with underwater sounds. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 1-100 Hz
• Seismic: oscillation waves in the earth, often caused by earthquakes or other tectonic activity. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02-16 Hz

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: Alex Reich

Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar

Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

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And find us on itunes:  https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:

Animals can detect infrasound: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2004/12/surviving_the_tsunami.html

A Time-Lapse Map of Every Nuclear Explosion Since 1945: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLCF7vPanrY

Sound travels 1000s of miles in the ocean’s SOFAR channel: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOFAR_channel

___________________________________________

References:

Sounds in the video that were recorded by CTBTO stations:

0:32    Kasatoshi volcano eruption in August 2008, detected 2100km away at infrasound station on mainland Alaska. Sped up 500x https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasatochi_Island

0:35    Explosion of Antares rocket in October 2014, detected 1100km away at Bermuda infrasound station. Sped up 150x https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_CRS_Orb-3 and video: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antares_Fails_to_Reach_Orbit_with_Cygnus_CRS-3_after_Rocket_Explodes.webm

0:37    Ship engine detected June 1 2017 by hydroacoustic station. Sped up 16x

0:40    Waves hitting an iceberg and causing it to vibrate like a cymbal in July 2010. Detected by hydroacoustic station off of Western Australia. Sped up 16x

1:01    Whale call Feb 18 2017, detected by hydroacoustic station. Sped up 16x

1:08    Chelyabinsk meteor airburst February 15 2013, detected by infrasound station 650km away in Kazakhstan. Sped up 135x

1:39    Earthquake Jan 2 2017, detected by infrasound station. Sped up 16x

2:00    Sound with unknown cause, detected by hydroacoustic station. March 25 2017. Sped up 16x



References

Brown, P. G., et al. 2013. A 500-kiloton airburst over Chelyabinsk and an enhanced hazard from small impactors. Nature, 503(7475), 238-241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12741

Graham, G. May 2017, Personal communication

Harabalus, G. May 2017, personal communication

LeBras, R. May 2017, personal communication

Mialle P., May 2017, personal communication

Miksis-Old, J. May 2017, personal communication

Nielsen, P., May 2017, personal communication

Le Pichon, A., et al. 2013. The 2013 Russian fireball largest ever detected by CTBTO infrasound sensors. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(14), 3732-3737. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/grl.50619/full

Check out our new website! https://www.minuteearth.com/
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Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

Astringent plant chemicals called tannins bind proteins on mucous membrane and skin, generating a prickly, puckery mouthfeel from foods and letting us “tan” skins into leather.
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If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling here:
Tannin: a yellow or brownish chemical present in some plant tissues, used in leather production and ink manufacture, and a contributor to the sensation of astringency Astringency: the sensation caused by the contraction of body tissues due to tannins, often called “mouthfeel” Polyphenol: a chemical compound containing more than one phenolic hydroxyl group, of which tannins are a major group Phenolic: a chemical compound with a hydroxyl group (oxygen & hydrogen) linked directly to a benzene ring
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

References:

Bajec, M. R., & Pickering, G. J. 2008. Astringency: mechanisms and perception. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 48(9), 858-875. https://goo.gl/XLR0JY

Barbehenn, R. V., & Constabel, C. P. 2011. Tannins in plant–herbivore interactions. Phytochemistry, 72(13), 1551-1565. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031942211000690

Covington, A. D. 1997. Modern tanning chemistry. Chemical Society Reviews, 26(2), 111-126. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/1997/cs/cs9972600111

Covington, A. D. 2009. Tanning chemistry: the science of leather. Royal Society of Chemistry.

Covington, A., Mar 2017, personal communication.

Gawel, R. 1998. Red wine astringency: a review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 4(2), 74-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-0238.1998.tb00137.x/full

Lesschaeve, I. & A.C. Noble. 2005. Polyphenols: factors influencing their sensory properties and their effects on food and beverage preferences. The American journal of clinical nutrition 81, no. 1: 330S-335S. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/81/1/330S.full

Siebert, K., Mar 2017, personal communication.

Thanks to Dollar Shave Club for sponsoring this video. Get your first month of the Executive Razor with Dr. Carver’s Shave Butter for only $5 at http://www.dollarshaveclub.com/minuteearth

It can be hard to distinguish bees from all the other insects out there that look like bees.


Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling here:
Mullerian mimicry: a type of mimicry in which two or more animals with defenses develop similar appearances as a shared protective device
Batesian mimicry: a type of mimicry in which an animal with no defenses is protected by its resemblance to an animal capable of defense
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
A collection of "bees" that aren't bees: http://notabee.tumblr.com/

___________________________________________

References:

Brower J.V.Z. & Brower L.P., (1965). Experimental studies of mimicry. 8. Further investigations of honeybees (Apis mellifera) and their dronefly mimics (Eristalis spp.). American Naturalist 99:173–187. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2459113.pdf

Dyer, F., Jan 2017, personal communication.

Franks, D. W. and Noble, J., (2002). The origins of mimicry rings. Standish, R. K., Bedau, M. A. and Abbass, H. A.(eds.) In Artificial Life VIII: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Artificial Life. MIT Press., pp. 186-191. http://alife8.alife.org/proceedings/sub2852.pdf

Pasteur, G., (1982). A classificatory review of mimicry systems. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics, 13: 169–199.
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125?journalCode=ecolsys.1
Rettenmeyer, C.W., (1970). Insect Mimicry. Annual Review of Entomology 15: 43-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.15.010170.000355.

Wilson, J., Jan 2017, personal communication.
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Image Credits:
Honey bee (Apis mellifera) - Charles James Sharp
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Honey_bee_(Apis_mellifera).jpg

Sugar bag bee - Graham Wise
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetragonula_carbonaria_(14521993792).jpg

Agapostemon virescens - Susan Ellis
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Agapostemon_virescens.jpg

Amegilla cingulata bee - Chiswick Chap
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amegilla_cingulata_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg

Drone fly (Eristalis tenax) - Francis C. Franklin
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eristalis_tenax_and_flowers.jpg

Eumeninae Wasp - Joaquim Alves Gaspar
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wasp_August_2007-3.jpg

Sesia apiformis - Gyorgy Csoka
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sesia_apiformis_adult1.jpg

Lunate Blister Beetle - Bernard DUPONT
https://www.flickr.com/photos/berniedup/12748380493/

Plain Lacewing (Cethosia hypsea) caterpillar - Bernard Dupont
https://www.flickr.com/photos/berniedup/22723162703

Nymph of Green Milkweed Locust (Phymateus viridipes) - Bernard DUPONT
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nymph_of_Green_Milkweed_Locust_(Phymateus_viridipes)_(13983971884).jpg

Eristalis tenax - Wilder Kaiser
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eristalis_tenax_01Aug2009.jpg

Yellow Jacket Wasp - Wikimedia user Bombman356
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yellow_jacket_wasp.jpg

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Our diets are more global than we realize, because our common food crops and animals were domesticated far away in diverse locations.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling here:

Food: a nutritious substance we eat or drink to maintain life and growth
Domestication: a multi-generational process in which one group of organisms manages the reproduction and care of, and changes, another type of organism, typically to secure a more predictable supply of resources (e.g. humans with food crops and animals)
Centers of origin: the locations where humans domesticated a lot of crops and animals for food, often where lots of wild relatives lived
Centers of diversity: a more recent concept recognizing that high concentrations of food plant and animal varieties and related wild species aren’t always located where the plants and animals were initially domesticated

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCVisual)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Explore the geographic origins of our food crops with these interactive charts: http://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/origin-of-crops/
How much do countries benefit from one another’s crop diversity?: https://goo.gl/4mB5Mt

___________________________________________

References:

Khoury, C.K. et al. 2016. Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide. Proc. R. Soc. B 283(1832): 20160792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0792

Khoury, C.K. et al. 2014. Increasing homogeneity in global food supplies and the implications for food security. PNAS 111(11): 4001-4006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1313490111

McGee, H. 2004. On food and cooking: the science and lore of the kitchen. Simon and Schuster.

Thanks to Squarespace for sponsoring this video! https://squarespace.com/minuteearth

Sled dogs are the best endurance athletes in the world thanks to a weird quirk in their metabolism.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:

Glycolysis: The process by which glycogen is broken down into energy.
Anaerobic metabolism: The creation of energy through the combustion of carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.
Aerobic metabolism: The creation of energy through the breakdown of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
ATP: The principal molecule for storing and transferring energy in cells.
Baseline Vital Signs: A subject’s temperature, pulse, respiration, blood pressure, pain, and pulse oximetry.
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Skunk Bear on the Human Vs. Horse Marathon: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vS2YVN0OAdc

___________________________________________

References:

McDougall, C. (2011). Born To Run.

McKenzie, M., Holbrook, T., Williamson, T., Royer, C., Valberg, S. ,Hinchcliff, K., Jose-Cunilleras, J., Nelson, S., Willard, M., and Davis, M. (2005). Recovery of Muscle Glycogen Concentrations in Sled Dogs during Prolonged Exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 37(8). 1307-1312. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16118576

Poole, D. and Erickson, H. (2011). Highly Athletic Terrestrial Mammals: Horses and Dogs. Comprehensive Physiology. 6:57. 1-37. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23737162

Gerth, N., Redman, P., Speakman, J., Jackson, S., and Stark, J.M. (2010). Energy metabolism of Inuit sled dogs. Journal of Comparative Physiology. 180: 577-589. Retrieved from:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20012661

Miller, B., Drake, J., Peelor, F.,, Biela, L., Geor, R., Hinchcliff, K., Davis, M., Hamilton, K. (2015). Participation in a 1000-mile race increases the oxidation of carbohydrate in Alaskan sled dogs. Journal of Applied Physiology. 118(12):1502-1509. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25150223

McKenzie, Ericka. (2017). Professor of large animal internal medicine at the Oregon State University College of Veterinary Medicine. Personal Communication.

We appreciate your support on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

Getting wet isn’t REALLY what makes wool shrink; it merely exacerbates the friction between the wool fibers, which is stronger in one direction than another, so when agitated in the washer or dryer, they migrate in relation to each other in a process called “felting.”
___________________________________________

To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Fiber: a threadlike structure forming part of the muscular, nervous, connective, or other tissue in the human or animal body
Felting: the process by which wool or another textile can be agitated, often along with moisture or heat, to cause the fibers to migrate amongst themselves and mat together into a dense smooth surface
Ratchet: a device consisting of a bar or wheel with a set of angled teeth that allow motion in one direction only
Wool: soft curly or wavy hair forming the coat of a sheep or similar animal, especially when cut off the animal & prepared for use in making cloth or yarn
Mammal: a warm-blooded, bony, & hairy/furry animal, the females of which give birth to live young and nurse them with milk

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang (@QCVisual)
Video Director: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Is it Better to Walk or Run in the Rain? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MqYE2UuN24

___________________________________________

References:

Gupta, N. P., Agarwal, R., & Pant, S. (2009). Factors affecting felting of wool: An overview. Colourage, 56(1).

Johnson, N. A., & Russell, I. (Eds.). (2008). Advances in wool technology. Elsevier. https://goo.gl/vZ9eCn

Makinson, K. R. (1972). The Role of the Scales of Wool Fibers in Felting and in Shrinkproofing. Wool Sci. Rev, (42), 2-16.

Makinson, K. R. (1979). Shrinkproofing of wool (Vol. 8). M. Dekker. Chicago.

Menkart, J., & Speakman, J. B. (1945). Scaliness of Wool Fibres. Nature, 156, 143-143. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v156/n3953/abs/156143a0.html

van der Vegt, A. K. (1955). A study on the mechanism of wool felting. Excelsior.

A tiny change in a molecule’s geometry completely changes its effects on the human body.
How We Made This Video (Ever & David Talk About Drugs): https://youtu.be/tefxgYP0BVM

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with:
Enantiomers: Molecules that are mirror images of each other.
Chirality: A geometric property that makes a molecule non-superimposable on its mirror image.
Methamphetamine: A central nervous system stimulant.
Levmetamfetamine: The new name for the left-handed version of methamphetamine, which acts as a vasoconstrictor.
Carvone: A terpenoid found in many essential oils.

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Narrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Emily Elert, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Breaking Bad: http://www.amc.com/shows/breaking-bad

___________________________________________

References:

Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL., et al. “The Making or Breaking of Covalent Bonds Involves Large Energy Changes”. Molecular Cell Biology. Section 2:1 (22). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB...

Wallach, J. “A Comprehensive Guide to the Clandestine Chemistry of 'Breaking Bad'”
Vice. (2013). Retrieved from: https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/ar....

Thanks to the following experts for their input and feedback:

Jason Wallach, Vice writer and chemist

Donna Nelson, University of Oklahoma chemistry professor and technical advisor to ‘Breaking Bad’

Adam Braunschweig, CUNY chemistry professor (http://www.braunschweiggroup.org/)

Justin Dragna, University of Texas chemistry professor

Check out how cats became our favorite little murder machines.
To learn how dogs and humans got together, watch the companion video over at It's OK To Be Smart: https://youtu.be/tggdERc8E6Y.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

If you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:

Puma: The big cat with the largest home range.
Felix silvestris: The wildcat that is the direct ancestor to all modern house cats.
Bastet: Egyptian cat goddess.
Pseudaelurus: A prehistoric cat that is the common ancestor to all modern felines.

___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Sarah Keartes
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCvisual)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Joe Hanson (@DrJoeHanson)
With Contributions From: Ever Salazar, Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

___________________________________________

References:

Hu, Yaowu, et al. ""Earliest evidence for commensal processes of cat domestication."" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.1 (2014): 116-120."

Montague, Michael J., et al. ""Comparative analysis of the domestic cat genome reveals genetic signatures underlying feline biology and domestication."" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.48 (2014): 17230-17235.

O’Brien, Stephen J., and Warren E. Johnson. The evolution of cats. Scientific American 297.1 (2007): 68-75.

"The Lion in the Living Room"" - Abigail Tucker http://amzn.to/2ppLNxz (Public library: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956395842)

Vigne, Jean-Denis, et al. Earliest “Domestic” Cats in China Identified as Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). PloS one 11.1 (2016): e0147295.

Human-cat burial image provided courtesy of Pr . Jean Guilaine excavations

Thanks to 23andMe for sponsoring this video! http://www.23andme.com/minuteearth
Due to a revolution in our understanding of the tree of life, birds are dinosaurs, while dimetrodons are not.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:

Systema Naturae: A 1735 book by Carl Linnaeus that outlined his hierarchical classification of animals.
Plagiuri: an early,now disused, biological subclassification of fish used by Linnaeus that also included dolphins and whales.
Anthropomorpha: a defunct taxon established by Linnaeus for genera Homo (humans), Simia (monkeys and apes in general) and Bradypus (sloths).
Cladogram: A branching diagram showing the evolutionary relationship between species.
Dimetrodon: An extinct carnivorous synapsid related to early mammals.
Plesiosaur: An extinct marine reptile with a long neck related to modern snakes.

Species featured in this video:
Brown-throated sloth (Bradypus variegatus)
Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus)
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Flathead Grey Mullet (Mugil cephalus)
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
After her great video on Dimetrodon https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-tdVPiyVDsQ, The Brain Scoop’s Emily Graslie started a blog devoted to the dinosaur confusion in modern toys: http://isnotadinosaur.tumblr.com/.

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References:

Angielczyk, K. (2009). Dimetrodon is not a Dinosaur: Using Tree Thinking to Understand the Ancient Relatives of Mammals and their Evolution. Evolution: Education and Outreach 2:257–271. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12052-009-0117-4

Romero, A. (2012). When Whales Became Mammals: The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science. New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals. Chapter 1. Retrieved from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-approaches-to-the-study-of-marine-mammals

Switek, B. (2010). Why a Pterosaur is Not a Dinosaur. Smithsonian. Retrieved from: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-a-pterosaur-is-not-a-dinosaur-87082921/

Collective nouns are a great way to have fun with language and nature.
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Thank you!
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Collective Noun: A noun that denotes a group of individuals.
Terms of Venery: Collective nouns specific to certain groups of animals.
Clowder: A term for a group of cats that means roughly, huddle, and comes from the same root as clot.
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCvisual)
Video Director: Henry Reich (@MinutePhysics)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Mental Floss’s collection of collective nouns: http://mentalfloss.com/article/33580/50-collective-nouns-bolster-your-vocabulary

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References:

Berners, D. J. (1494). The Boke of Saint Albans. Retrieved from: https://books.google.com/books?id=-awLAAAAIAAJ

Lipton, J. (1993). An Exaltation of Larks. Retrieved from: https://www.amazon.com/Exaltation-Larks-Ultimate-James-Lipton/dp/0140170960

Lund, N. (2015). No, It’s Not Actually a Murder of Crows. Audubon (December). Retrieved from:
http://www.audubon.org/news/no-its-not-actually-murder-crows

Please support us on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
THANK YOU for helping us stick around!
___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

Thanks to Crunchyroll for sponsoring this video: http://www.crunchyroll.com/minuteearth

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

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FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:

Cephalopod: An active predatory mollusk like an octopus or a squid.

Cetacean: A marine mammal like a porpoise, dolphin or whale.

Colon: The part of the large intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum.

Rectum: The last part of the intestine that ends in the anus.

Eau de toilette: A dilute form of perfume

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Script Editor: Alex Reich

Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)

Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)

Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)

With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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Like our videos?

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:

Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6

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If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:

When a whale falls, it's story has just begun: https://vimeo.com/29987934

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References:

Clarke, R. (2006). The Origin of Ambergris. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Mammals 5:1  (7-21). Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.5597/lajam00087

Dannenfeldt, K. (1982). Ambergris: The Search for Its Origin. Isis 73:3 (382-397). Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/231442

Kemp, K. (2016). Personal communication based on his book, “Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris.” Link: https://www.amazon.com/Floating-Gold-Natural-Unnatural-Ambergris/dp/0226430367

Snakes occupy a special place in the human brain because they’re so weird.

Thanks to 23andMe for sponsoring this video! http://www.23andme.com/minuteearth

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

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FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:

Ophidiophobia: The abnormal fear of snakes

Lateral Undulation: Waves of lateral bending through the body that propel the snake forward.

Trichromatic Vision: Three color receptors in the eye that allow the animal to see a wider spectrum of colors.

Electroencephalogram: A non-invasive method of measuring electrical activity in the brain.

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Credits (and Twitter handles):

Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)

Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen

Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)

With Contributions From: Emily Elert, Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich

Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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Like our videos?

Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd

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Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6

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And find us on itunes:  https://goo.gl/sfwS6n

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If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:

Vsauce2 on Dragons and Snakes and Humans: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6grLJyqIM8E

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References:

Isbell, L. (2004). Snakes as agents of evolutionary change in primate brains. Journal of Human Evolution 51 (1-35). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16545427

LoBue, V., and DeLoache, J. (2008). Detecting the Snake in the Grass: Attention to Fear-Relevant Stimuli by Adults and Young Children. Psychological Science 19:3 (284-289). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18315802

Van Lea, W., Isbelle, L., Matsumotoa, J., Nguyen, J., Horia, E., Maiorc, R., Tomazc, R., Trana, A., Onoa, T., and Nishijoa, H. (2013) Pulvinar neurons reveal neurobiological evidence of past selection for rapid detection of snakes. PNAS 110:47 (19000-19005). Retrieved from: http://www.pnas.org/content/110/47/19000

Kawai, N., and He, H. (2016). Breaking Snake Camouflage: Humans Detect Snakes More Accurately than Other Animals under Less Discernible Visual Conditions. PLoS ONE 11:10. Retrieved from: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0164342.

It's easy to assume that every trait - including stubby arms on a terrifying predator - must be beneficial, but the forces of evolution don't really work like that.

Thanks to the University of Minnesota for sponsoring this video! http://twin-cities.umn.edu/

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
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FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:
Evolutionary Mechanisms: Forces that change the frequency of genes in populations.
Natural Selection: The process whereby traits that make animals more likely to survive and reproduce take hold in a population.
Vestigiality: The process by which a genetically-determined structure loses some or all of its functionality.
Genetic Drift: A change in the frequency of an allele due to random sampling.

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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen (@QCVisual)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
The BrainScoop on Sue the T. Rex: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHhI4eqYGdk

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References:

Switek, B. (2013). Paleontology: The Truth about the T. Rex 502 (424-426). Retrieved from: http://www.nature.com/news/palaeontology-the-truth-about-t-rex-1.13988

E. Snively, A. P. Russell, G. L. Powell, J. M. Theodor & M.J.Ryan (2014). The role of the neck in the feeding behaviour of the Tyrannosauridae: inference based on kinematics and muscle function of extant avians. Journal of Zoology 292 (290-303). Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jzo.12109/abstract

Middleton, K., and Gatesy, S. (2000) Theropod forelimb design and evolution. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 128 (149-187). Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb00160.x/abstract

Lynch, M., Ackerman, M., Gout, J., Long, H., Sung, W., Thomas, W., and Foster, P. (2016). Genetic drift, selection and the evolution of the mutation rate. Nature Reviews: Genetics 17 (704-715). Retrieved from: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v17/n11/full/nrg.2016.104.html

This video is in collaboration with Bill and Melinda Gates. You can check out the Gates Annual Letter here: http://b-gat.es/2lhhtmJ.

Doctors beat back a disease that was killing tens of thousands of babies a year with a machine based on a simple principle of physics.

Thanks to Bill and Melinda Gates for their financial support. Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:

Preterm Birth: The leading cause of death of children under five years old, prematurity occurs for a variety of different reasons.
Respiratory Distress Syndrome: A syndrome in premature babies caused by insufficient production of pulmonary surfactant.
Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs that allow for rapid gas exchange
Pulmonary Surfactant: A mixture of lipids and proteins that decreases surface tension in the alveoli.
Law of Laplace: A law of physics stating that the pressure within a sphere is inversely proportional to its radius.
CPAP: A ventilator that provides Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) to keep the airways open.
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
10 Awesome Balloon Tricks by Mr. Hacker: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NXqmvFy9cXE

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References:

Gregg, R. Bernstein, J. (1961). Pulmonary Hyaline Membranes and the Respiratory Distress Syndrome. American Journal of Diseases of Children 102 (871-889). Retrieved from: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/500014

Gregory, G., Kitterman, J., Phibbs, R., Tooley, W., and Hamilton, W. (1971). Treatment of the Idiopathic Respiratory-Distress Syndrome with Continuous Positive Airway Pressure. New England Journal of Medicine 284 (1333-1340). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4930602

Kamath, B., MacGuire, E., McClure, E., Goldenberg, R., and Jobe, A. (2011) Neonatal Mortality From Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Lessons for Low-Resource Countries. Pediatrics 127 (1139-1146). Retrieved from: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/127/6/1139

Mai, C., Yaster, M., Firth, P. (2013). The development of continuous positive airway pressure:an interview with Dr. George Gregory. Pediatric Anaesthesia 23 (3-8). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23170829

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/r/minuteearth2

The pigments in our food all get destroyed on their way through our digestive system...so where do the colors of our poop and pee come from?

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
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FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:
- Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen
- Hemoglobin also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates.
- Bilirubin is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates.
- Urobilinogen is a colourless by-product of bilirubin reduction. It is formed in the intestines by bacterial action on bilirubin. About half of the urobilinogen formed is reabsorbed and taken up via the portal vein to the liver, enters circulation and is excreted by the kidney.
- Urobilin or urochrome is the chemical primarily responsible for the yellow color of urine.
- Stercobilin is the chemical responsible for the brown color of human feces"
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Will Tauxe
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
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Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
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And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
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An amazing new technology will let scientists grow new kidneys for patients using their own stem cells inside of pigs.

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/r/minuteearth2

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

FYI: We try to leave jargon out of our videos, but if you want to learn more about this topic, here are some keywords to get your googling started:
Organ transplantation - surgically transferring an organ from one person into another.
Xenotransplantation - transplanting organs between members of different species.
Transplant rejection - when the organ recipient’s immune system destroys transplanted tissue.
Pluripotent stem cells - embryonic cells that can give rise to all the different types of cells that make up the body.
CRISPR - a genome editing tool that allows scientists to modify genes in living cells.
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writers: Rachel Becker (@Ra_Becks) & David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Qingyang Chen
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

_________________________________________

Like our videos?
Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd
Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ

Also, say hello on:
Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6
Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC

And find us on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
___________________________________________

References:

Ross, P. (2016). Personal Communication

Tushla, L. (2015). When a Transplant Fails. National Kidney Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.kidney.org/transplantation/transaction/TC/summer09/TCsm09_TransplantFails

Reardon, S. (2015) New life for pig-to-human transplants 527 (152-154). Retrieved from: http://www.nature.com/news/new-life-for-pig-to-human-transplants-1.18768

Nagashima, H., Matsunari, H. (2016). Growing human organs in pigs - A dream or reality? Theriogenology 86 (422-426). Retrieved from http://www.theriojournal.com/article/S0093-691X(16)30095-4/pdf